David Bulbeck
School of Archaeology and Anthropology, The Australian National University,
Canberra, Australia
Date of Document: January 2006

Cranial morphology is an important component in the The Contribution of South Asia to the Peopling of Australasia project. The system we use is the one developed by Stanley Larnach in his collaboration with Professor N.W.G. Macintosh at Sydney University (Larnach and Macintosh 1966, 1970). Larnach documented approximately 200 anatomical traits and their expression on Australian Aboriginal crania, and focused on 22 of these traits as useful characters for distinguishing Australian crania from the crania of other populations. Subsequent observers have followed the Larnach and Macintosh system, to varying degrees, and either made their records available to this project or provided their original data in theses. The map at the bottom of this web page identifies the main Australasian populations studied in terms of the Larnach and Macintosh characters.

The principle sources of data are the following. (1) Stanley Larnach's own observations on Australian and a small number of Papuan crania, curated with the Larnach papers at the South Australian Museum Archives. (2) Observations by Johan Kamminga, of National Heritage Consultants, who has shared with me a long interest in this research, and generously made his observations available for my MA research (Bulbeck 1981). Kamminga's Australasian records cover New Caledonia, Java and other parts of Indo-Malaysia (including the Nicobar Islands), the Andamans and Sri Lanka. (3) Observations by Michael Green (1990) of Mainland Papua New Guinea crania, presented in his PhD thesis even though they were not utilised in his thesis argument. (4) Observations by myself of Solomon Islander crania (Bulbeck 1981) and, more recently, New Britain, Vanuatu and Borneo skulls. (5) Observations by Daniel Rayner and Adam Lauer of Malay skulls, and by Pathmanathan Raghavan of subcontinental Indian crania, both under the auspices of "The Contribution of South Asia to the Peopling of Australasia" project. (6) Observations by Peter Brown (1982) of sexing features and metrical attributes of Murray Valley Aboriginal crania.

A very large database covering over 2,000 male and female crania has been created, and many more specimens, especially from South Asia, are still to be added. However, owing to the involvement of seven different observers in the original data, the potential for inter-observer error is a serious concern. The document Calibration of the Larnach and Macintosh Cranial Characters addresses inter-observer error and the project's protocol for reducing the impact of this error and, in particular, eliminating any bias. That document also details the 22 Larnach and Macintosh characters employed in our analysis. Logistic discrimination analysis between the main populations recognised in our study (South Asians, Indo-Malaysians, Melanesians, and Australian Aborigines), based on dichotomised representations of the trait expressions, is well underway.

The remainder of this web page presents tables displaying the codes employed to represent the observations of the different observers, based on the analysis explained in Calibration of the Larnach and Macintosh Cranial Characters. Non-observations, not shown below, are always coded "9". Where an observer's records omit the character in question, they are excluded from the table. The purpose of presenting the code tables here is to provide a reference for the publications (in progress) documenting the trait combinations which are optimal in discriminating between circum-Indian Ocean and southwest Pacific populations.

Table 1. Codes for Different Observers' Records of Glabella Development (gl)

Code Value	Larnach	Green	Kamminga	Bulbeck	Rayner & Lauer	Raghavan	Brown
Note. On the rare occasions where Bulbeck, or his co-workers, did not record glabella subtense, but did record the Martin grade of development, the observations are coded as follows: 1 = Martin 1 to 4; 2 = Martin 5; 3 = Martin 6.
1	Martin 1 to 3	Glabella subtense < 4 mm	Martin 1 to 3	Glabella subtense < 4.5 mm	Glabella subtense < 4.5 mm	Glabella subtense < 4.5 mm	Martin 1 to 3
2	Martin 4	Glabella subtense 5 to 6 mm	Martin 4	Glabella subtense 4.6-6.4 mm	Glabella subtense 4.6-6.4 mm	Glabella subtense 4.6-6.4 mm	Martin 4
3	Martin 5 to 6	Glabella subtense > 7 mm	Martin 5 to 6	Glabella subtense > 6.5 mm	Glabella subtense > 6.5 mm	Glabella subtense > 6.5 mm	Martin 5 to 6

Table 2. Codes for Different Observers' Records of Superciliary Ridge Development (sr)

Code Value	Larnach	Green	Kamminga	Bulbeck	Rayner & Lauer	Raghavan	Brown
1	Small	Small to Medium	Small	Small	Small	Small to Medium	Small
3	Medium to Large	Large	Medium to Large	Medium to Large	Medium to Large	Large	Medium to Large

Table 3. Codes for Different Observers' Records of Zygomatic Trigone Development (zt)

Code Value	Larnach	Green	Kamminga	Bulbeck	Rayner & Lauer	Raghavan	Brown
1	Slight	Slight	Slight	Slight	Slight	Slight	Slight
3	Medium to Large	Medium to Large	Medium to Large	Medium to Large	Medium to Large	Medium to Large	Medium to Large

Table 4. Codes for Different Observers' Records of Phaenozygy (ph)

Code Value	Larnach	Green	Kamminga	Bulbeck	Rayner & Lauer	Raghavan
1	N/A	Absent	Absent	Absent	Absent	Absent to Trace
2	Absent	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
3	Slight to Marked	Trace to Distinct	Trace to Distinct	Trace to Distinct	Trace to Distinct	Distinct

Table 5. Codes for Different Observers' Records of the Palatine Torus (pt)

Code Value	Larnach	Green	Kamminga	Bulbeck	Rayner & Lauer	Raghavan
Note. The codes indicated for Bulbeck here apply only to his observations on New Britain crania. For his observations on other series of crania, the codes indicated for Rayner & Lauer, and Raghavan, would apply.
1	Absent	Absent	Absent to Trace	Absent to Trace	Absent to Trace	Absent to Trace
2	Small to large ridges	N/A	Distinct ridge-shaped	Distinct ridge-shaped	N/A	N/A
3	N/A	N/A	Distinct (shape undescribed)	N/A	Distinct	Distinct
4	Small to large lumps and mounds	Present	N/A	Distinct non-ridge shaped	N/A	N/A

Table 6. Codes for Different Observers' Records of Palate Size (ps)

Code Value	Larnach	Green	Kamminga	Bulbeck	Rayner & Lauer	Raghavan	Brown
1	Module < 31.8	Module < 31.8	Module < 31.8	Module < 31.8	Module < 31.8	Module < 31.8	Module < 31.8
2	"Small"	N/A	"Small"	"Small"	"Small"	"Small"	N/A
3	Module 31.8-38.4	Module 31.8-38.4	Module 31.8-38.4	Module 31.8-38.4	Module 31.8-38.4	Module 31.8-38.4	Module 31.8-38.4
4	"Medium"	N/A	"Medium"	"Medium"	"Medium"	"Medium"	N/A
5	Module 38.5-40.0	Module 38.5-40.0	Module 38.5-40.0	Module 38.5-40.0	Module 38.5-40.0	Module 38.5-40.0	Module 38.5-40.0
6	"Large"	N/A	"Large"	"Large"	"Large"	"Large"	N/A
7	Module > 40.0	Module > 40.0	Module > 40.0	Module > 40.0	Module > 40.0	Module > 40.0	Module > 40.0

Table 7. Codes for Different Observers' Records of Subnasal Prognathism (sp)

Code Value	Larnach	Green	Kamminga	Bulbeck	Rayner & Lauer	Raghavan
1	Absent to Small	Nasiospinale-prosthion < 16 mm OR Ba-Ns/Ba-Pr index > 96.9	Small	Small to Medium	Small	Small to Medium
3	Medium to Large	Nasiospinale-prosthion > 17 mm AND Ba-Ns/Ba-Pr index < 96.9	Medium to Large	Large	Medium to Large	Large

Table 8. Codes for Different Observers' Records of Supraorbital Breadth (sb)

Code Value	Larnach	Green	Kamminga	Bulbeck	Rayner & Lauer	Raghavan	Brown
1	< 104 mm	< 101 mm	< 104 mm	< 103.5 mm	< 103.5 mm	< 103.5 mm	< 104 mm
2	N/A	102-104 mm	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
3	104-108 mm	N/A	104-108 mm	103.5-107 mm	103.5-107 mm	103.5-107 mm	104-108 mm
4	> 108 mm	> 105 mm	> 108 mm	> 107 mm	> 107 mm	> 107 mm	> 108 mm

Table 9. Codes for Different Observers' Records of Naso-Frontal Articulation Width (na)

Code Value	Larnach	Green	Kamminga	Bulbeck	Rayner & Lauer	Raghavan
1	< 10 mm	< 10 mm	< 10 mm	< 10.1 mm	< 10.1 mm	< 10.1 mm
2	N/A	11 mm	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
3	10-12 mm	N/A	10-12 mm	10.2-12 mm	10.2-12 mm	10.2-12 mm
4	N/A	12 mm	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
5	> 12 mm	> 13 mm	> 12 mm	> 12 mm	> 12 mm	> 12 mm

Table 10. Codes for Different Observers' Records of Median Frontal Ridge (mf)

Code Value	Larnach	Green	Kamminga	Bulbeck	Rayner & Lauer	Raghavan
1	Absent to Small	Absent to Trace	Absent to Trace	Absent to Trace	Absent to Trace	Absent to Trace
2	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	Distinct
3	Medium to Large	Distinct	Distinct	Distinct	Distinct	N/A

Table 11. Codes for Different Observers' Records of Supramastoid Crest Development (sc)

Code Value	Larnach	Green	Kamminga	Bulbeck	Rayner & Lauer	Raghavan
1	Slight	Slight	Slight	Slight	Slight	Slight
3	Medium to Large	Medium to Large	Medium to Large	Medium to Large	Medium to Large	Medium to Large

Table 12. Codes for Different Observers' Records of Malar Marginal Process Size (mm)

Code Value	Larnach	Kamminga	Bulbeck	Rayner & Lauer	Raghavan
1	< 2 mm	< 2 mm	< 2.2 mm	< 2.2 mm	< 2.2 mm
3	> 2 mm	> 2 mm	> 2.2 mm	> 2.2 mm	> 2.2 mm

Table 13. Codes for Different Observers' Records of Cranial Index (ci)

Code Value	Larnach	Green	Kamminga	Bulbeck	Rayner & Lauer	Raghavan	Brown
1	> 80.0	> 80.0	> 80.0	> 80.0	> 80.0	> 80.0	> 80.0
2	76.0-80.0	76.0-80.0	76.0-80.0	76.0-80.0	76.0-80.0	76.0-80.0	76.0-80.0
3	74.1-75.9	74.1-75.9	74.1-75.9	74.1-75.9	74.1-75.9	74.1-75.9	74.1-75.9
4	< 74.0	< 74.0	< 74.0	< 74.0	< 74.0	< 74.0	< 74.0

Table 14. Codes for Different Observers' Records of Frontal Curvature Index (fr)

Code Value	Larnach	Green	Kamminga	Bulbeck	Rayner & Lauer	Raghavan	Brown
1	> 24.8	> 24.8	> 24.8	> 24.8	> 24.8	> 24.8	> 24.8
2	23.5-24.7	23.5-24.7	23.5-24.7	23.5-24.7	23.5-24.7	23.5-24.7	23.5-24.7
3	22.3-23.4	22.3-23.4	22.3-23.4	22.3-23.4	22.3-23.4	22.3-23.4	22.3-23.4
4	< 22.2	< 22.2	< 22.2	< 22.2	< 22.2	< 22.2	< 22.2

Table 15. Codes for Different Observers' Records of Anterior Nasal Spine (ns)

Code Value	Larnach	Green	Kamminga	Bulbeck	Rayner & Lauer	Raghavan
1	< Broca 3	< Broca 3	< Broca 3	< Broca 3	< Broca 3	< Broca 3
2	Broca 3	Broca 3	Broca 3	Broca 3	Broca 3	Broca 3
3	> Broca 3	> Broca 3	> Broca 3	> Broca 3	> Broca 3	> Broca 3

Table 16. Codes for Different Observers' Records of Transverse Occipital Torus (ot)

Code Value	Larnach	Green	Kamminga	Bulbeck	Rayner & Lauer	Raghavan
1	Absent	Absent	Absent	Absent	Absent	Absent
2	Small	Trace	Trace	Trace	Trace	Trace
3	Medium to Large	Distinct	Distinct	Distinct	Distinct	Distinct

Table 17. Codes for Different Observers' Records of Postorbital Constriction (pc)

Note. Brown (1982) does not provide data on the postorbital diameter across the fronto-sphenoidal sutures. However, he does provide data on minimum frontal width. When the difference between supraorbital breadth and minimum frontal width exceeds 13 mm, it is safe to infer postorbital constriction of at least 18 mm.
Code Value	Larnach	Green	Kamminga	Bulbeck	Rayner & Lauer	Raghavan	Brown
1	< 18 mm	< 13 mm	< 18 mm	< 18 mm	< 18 mm	< 18 mm	N/A
3	> 18 mm	> 13 mm	> 18 mm	> 18 mm	> 18 mm	> 18 mm	> 18 mm

Table 18. Codes for Different Observers' Records of Malar Orbital Border Rounding (ob)

Code Value	Larnach	Green	Kamminga	Bulbeck	Rayner & Lauer	Raghavan
1	Absent	Absent	Absent	Absent	Absent	Absent to Trace
2	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	Distinct
3	Rounded to Flattened	Trace to Distinct	Trace to Distinct	Trace to Distinct	Trace to Distinct	N/A

Table 19. Codes for Different Observers' Records of Parietal Bossing (pb)

Code Value	Larnach	Green	Kamminga	Bulbeck	Rayner & Lauer	Raghavan
1	Prominent	Prominent	Prominent	Prominent	Prominent	Prominent
3	Small to Medium	Small to Medium	Small to Medium	Small to Medium	Small to Medium	Small to Medium

Table 20. Codes for Different Observers' Records of Sagittal Keeling (sk)

Code Value	Larnach	Green	Kamminga	Bulbeck	Rayner & Lauer	Raghavan
1	Absent to Small	Absent to Trace	Absent to Trace	Absent to Trace	Absent to Trace	Absent to Trace
2	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	Distinct
3	Medium to Large	Distinct	Distinct	Distinct	Distinct	N/A

Table 21. Codes for Different Observers' Records of External Occipital Protuberance (op)

Code Value	Larnach	Green	Kamminga	Bulbeck	Rayner & Lauer	Raghavan
1	Broca 0 to 2	Absent	Absent to Trace (Broca 0 to 2)	Absent to Trace (Broca 0 to 2)	Absent to Trace (Broca 0 to 2)	Absent to Trace
3	Broca 3 to 4	Trace to Distinct	Distinct (Broca 3 to 4)	Distinct (Broca 3 to 4)	Distinct (Broca 3 to 4)	Distinct

Table 22. Codes for Different Observers' Records of Lower Narial Margins (nm)

Code Value	Larnach	Kamminga	Bulbeck	Rayner & Lauer	Raghavan
1	Anthropine	Anthropine	Anthropine	Anthropine	Anthropine
2	Ambiguous	Ambiguous	Ambiguous	Ambiguous	Ambiguous
3	Non-anthropine	Non-anthropine	Non-anthropine	Non-anthropine	Non-anthropine

Links to Craniology Web Documents

Calibration of the Larnach and Macintosh Cranial Characters

References

Brown, P.J. 1982. Coobool Creek: An Australian Hominid Population. PhD thesis. Canberra: The Australian National University.

Bulbeck, F.D. 1981. Continuities in Southeast Asian Evolution since the Late Pleistocene: Some New Material Described and some old Questions Reviewed. Unpublished MA thesis. Canberra: The Australian National University.

Green, M.K. 1990. Prehistoric Cranial Variation in Papua New Guinea. Unpublished PhD thesis. Canberra: The Australian National University.

Larnach, S.L. and N.W.G. Macintosh. 1966. The Craniology of the Aborigines of New South Wales. Sydney: University of Sydney, Oceania Monographs 13.

Larnach, S.L. and N.W.G. Macintosh. 1970. The Craniology of the Aborigines of Queensland. Sydney: University of Sydney, Oceania Monographs 15.