1. Introduction

This unit is an introduction to the method and theory of analysing and interpreting individual archaeological stone artefacts. Subjects to be covered include classificatory theory and practice, the nature of a reductive technology, the identification of flaked artefacts, and the methods by which human behaviour can be inferred from archaeological artefacts. In the laboratory we will make stone artefacts, examine archaeological specimens and develop analytical skills. Technologies from around the world will be examined, but practicals will concentrate on Australian artefacts.

Andrefsky, W. 1998 Lithics. Macroscopic approaches to analysis. Cambridge University Press.

Hiscock, P. 1998 Revitalising artefact analysis. In T. Murray (ed) Archaeology of Aboriginal Australia. Pp.257-265. Sydney, Unwin and Allen.

Hiscock, P. and S. Mitchell 1993 Stone artefact quarries and reduction sites in Australia: Towards a type profile. Australian Heritage Commission. Australian Government Publishing Service. Particularly chapter 2 (pp. 5-17).

Hills and Evans 1972 A model for classification and typology. In D.L.Clarke (ed.) Models in Archaeology. Pp.231-274. London: Methuen.

Johnson, L.L. 1978 A history of flint-knapping experimentation, 1838-1976. Current Anthropology 19(2): 337-372.

Brockwell, S. 1996 Open sites of the South Alligator River Wetland, Kakadu. Pp. 90-105 in P. Veth and P. Hiscock (eds) Archaeology of northern Australia. Tempus 4, Anthropology Museum, University of Queensland.

Svoboda, J. 1994 The Pavlov site, Czech Republic: lithic evidence from the Upper Palaeolithic. Journal of Field Archaeology. 21(1):69-81.

Wright, R.V.S. (ed.) 1972 Koonalda Cave. Archaeology of the Gallus site. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies.

(plus to provide background on Gallus, in conjunction with the R.S.V.Wright book: Veth, P., P.Hiscock, S.O'Connor and M.Spriggs 1998 Gallus on the crossroads: diffusionist models for Asian artefact ‘traditions’ in Australia and the last hurrah for cultural evolutionism. The Artefact 21:14-18).

Crabtree, D.E. 1972 An introduction to flintworking. Occasional Papers of the Idaho State University Museum, No.28.

Flenniken, J. J., and J. P. White 1985 Australian flaked stone tools: a technological perspective. Records of the Australian Museum 36: 131-151.

Davidson, I., L.Godwin, and S.Sutton (eds) 1989 Technological Analysis and Australian Archaeology. British Archaeological Research International Series.

Holmes, W.H. 1919 Handbook of Aboriginal American Antiquities, Part I, Introductory, The Lithic Industries. Bulletin of American Ethnology 60. Washington DC, US Government Printer.

McCarthy, F.D. 1967 Australian Aboriginal Stone implements. Australian Museum, Sydney.

Skertchly, S.B.J. 1879 On the manufacture of gun-flints. Memoir of the British Geological Survey.

Wright, R.V.S. (Ed) 1977 Stone tools as cultural markers: change, evolution and complexity. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, Canberra.

The course runs for one semester and consists of a two-hour lecture each week and a two-hour laboratory session each fortnight (on average).

The two proposed components to the assessment:

1. Laboratory exam = 30%
2. One piece of written work (4-5,000 words) = 70%. The topic for the written work is to be designed by each student and should be negotiated with unit coordinator.

To achieve a mark all assessment has to be completed. The Laboratory Exam will be conducted in the final laboratory session (27^th October 1999). The essay is due on the 29^th October 1999.

Extensions for assignments will only be given on the provision of a medical certificate. In that event you must consult with the unit controller for an extended deadline. Requests for extensions for non-medical reasons will be granted only in exceptional circumstances. Pressure of other work or unavailability of texts will not be accepted as legitimate grounds for extension. Do not leave your preparation until the last moment - START EARLY!

If you are unable to meet a set deadline consult with the unit controller before the expiry of the deadline. No penalties are placed on late work; but late work will not be accepted unless an extension has been approved.

Students should discuss specific proposals for their analysis with the unit coordinator. This assessable written work can take a number of forms, including conventional essays, a critique of a published ‘lithic’ analysis, an experimental investigation, or an original analysis of an archaeological collection. Any subject matter dealt with in lectures will be deemed appropriate.

The following readings represent an eclectic list designed to supplement those found in the text (ie. Andrefsky, W. 1998 Lithics. Macroscopic approaches to analysis. Cambridge University Press). References deserving particular attention are provided in bold.

For web sites start at "Archaeology World's Stone Artefacts" (http://artalpha.anu.edu.au/web/arc/resources/stone.htm)

By far the most useful hub for web surfing on the topic is "the lithics site" (http://wings.buffalo.edu/academic/department/anthropology/lithics.html)

Australian Implements (http://artalpha.anu.edu.au/web/arc/resources/paa/arcrock.htm)

Glossary of technical terms to be used in the unit: (http://artalpha.anu.edu.au/web/arc/resources/stonegloss/gloss.htm)

For general web searches start at "Archaeology World's Search" (http://artalpha.anu.edu.au/web/arc/search/search.htm)

Gould, S. J. and R. C. Lewontin The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: a critique of the Adaptationist programme.

Hull, D. 1978 A matter of individuality. Philosophy of Science 45:335-360.

Kitts, D.B. and D.J. Kitts 1979 Biological species as natural kinds. Philosophy of Science 46:613-622.

Mayr, E. 1981 Biological classification: towards a synthesis of opposing methodologies. Science 214:510-516.

Spaulding, A.C. 1953 Statistical techniques for the discovery of artifact types. American Antiquity 18(4):305-313.

Rouse, I. 1960 The classification of artifacts in archaeology. American Antiquity 25(3): 313-323.

Aldenderfer, M. S. and R. K. Blashfield 1978 Cluster analysis and archaeological classification. American Antiquity 43(3):502-506.

Fish, P. R. 1978 Consistency in archaeological measurement and classification: a pilot study. American Antiquity 43(1):86-89.

Adams, W. Y. and E.W.Adams 1991 Archaeological typology and practical reality. Cambridge University Press.

Bordes, F. and de Sonneville-Bordes, D., 1970. The significance of variability in Paleolithic assemblages. World Archaeology 2(1): 61-73.

Brew, J.O. 1946 Archaeology of Alkali Ridge, southeast Utah. Cambridge: Harvard University Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology 21.

Collins, D. 1969 Culture traditions and environment of early Man. Current Anthropology 10(4): 267-316.

Klejn, L. S. 1982 Archaeological typology. Oxford: British Archaeological reports International series 153.

Krieger, A. D. 1944 The typological concept. American Antiquity 9(3):271-88.

Smith, R.E., G. R. Willey, and J.C.Gifford 1960 The type-variety concept as a basis for the analysis of Maya pottery. American Antiquity 25(3):330-340.

Steward, J.H. 1954 Types of types. American Anthropologist 56: 54-57.

White,J.P. and D.H.Thomas 1972 What mean these stones? Ethnotaxonomic models and archaeological interpretations in the New Guinea Highlands. Pp.275-308 in D.L.Clarke (ed) Models in Archaeology, Methuen, London

Binford, L.R. 1973 Interassemblage variability - the Mousterian and the ‘functional’ argument. Pp.227-254. in C.Renfrew (ed.) The Explanation of Culture Change. Surrey: Duckworth.

Bordes, F., 1961. Mousterian cultures in France. Science 134: 803-810.

Bordes, F., 1972. A tale of two caves. Harper and Row: New York.

Bordes, F., 1973. On the chronology and contemporaneity of different palaeolithic cultures in France. Pp.217-226 in C. Renfrew (ed.) The exploration of culture change. Duckworth.

Justice, N.D. 1988 Stone age spear and arrow Points of the Midcontinental and eastern United States. Indiana University Press.

Mellars, P. 1989 Major issues in the emergence of modern humans, Current Anthropology 30(2): 349-385.

Otte, M. 1990. From the Middle to the Upper Palaeolithic: the nature of the transition. Pp.438-456 in P. Mellars (ed.) The emergence of modern humans. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Svoboda, J. 1994 The Pavlov site, Czech Republic: lithic evidence from the Upper Palaeolithic. Journal of Field Archaeology. 21(1): 69-81.

Bowdler, S. 1996 Cultural paradigms for change in Australian archaeology. In S.Ulm, I.Lilley and A.Ross (eds) Australian Archaeology ’95: proceedings of the 1995 Australian Archaeology Association Conference, pp. 23-29. Tempus 6, University of Queensland.

Brockwell, S. 1996 Open sites of the South Alligator River Wetland, Kakadu. Pp. 90-105 in P.Veth and P.Hiscock (eds) Archaeology of northern Australia. Tempus 4, Anthropology Museum, University of Queensland.

Cane, S.B. 1988 Written on stone: a discussion on ethnographic and Aboriginal perspection of stone tools. Pp.88-93 in B. Meehan and R. Jones (ed) Archaeology with ethnography: an Australian Perspective. Department of Prehistory, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University.

Cane, S. 1992 Aboriginal perceptions of their stone tool technology: a case study from the Western Desert, Australia. Australian Archaeology 35: 11-31.

Clegg, J.K. 1977 The four dimensions of artificial variation. Pp.60-66 in R.V.S.Wright (ed.) Stone Tools as Cultural Markers: Change, Evolution and Complexity. Sydney: Humanities Press.

Gallus, A. 1976 The Middle and Early Upper Pleistocene stone industries at the Dry Creek archaeological site near Keilor, Australia. The Artefact 1:75-108.

Hiscock, P. 1983 Stone Tools as cultural markers? The last two decades of Australian stone artefact analysis. Australian Archaeology 16: 48-56.

Veth, P., P.Hiscock, S.O'Connor and M.Spriggs 1998 Gallus on the crossroads: diffusionist models for Asian artefact ‘traditions’ in Australia and the last hurrah for cultural evolutionism. The Artefact 21:14-18.

Wright, R.V.S. (ed.) 1972 Koonalda Cave. Archaeology of the Gallus site. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies.

Wright, R. V. S. 1977 Stone Tools as cultural markers. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies.

White, J. P. 1967 Ethno-archaeology in New Guinea: two examples, Mankind 6: 409-414.

White, J. P. 1969 Typologies for some prehistoric flaked stone artefacts of the Australian New Guinea highlands, Archaeology and Physical Archaeology in Oceania 4: 18-46.

3. Australian Implements (http://artalpha.anu.edu.au/web/arc/resources/paa/arcrock.htm)

Akerman, K. 1993 The status of the Horsehoof core. Records of the Australian Museum Supplement 17: 125-127.

Dickson, F. 1981 Australian Stone Hatchets: a study in Design and Dynamics. Academic Press.

Etheridge, R. 1891 Notes on Australian Aboriginal stone weapons and implements, Proceedings of the Linnean Society of NSW 6(1): 31-48, 6(3): 357-88, 699-704

Etheridge, R. and T. Whitelegge 1907 Aboriginal workshops on the coast of New South Wales, and their contents, Records of the Australian Museum 6(4): 233-250.

Hayden, B. 1977 Stone tool functions in the Western Desert. In R. V. S. Wright (ed.) Stone Tools as Cultural Markers: Change, Evolution and Complexity. Pp.178-188. Sydney: Humanities Press.

Hiscock, P. 1986 Technological change in the Hunter River Valley and the interpretation of Late Holocene change in Australia. Archaeology in Oceania 21(1): 40-50.

Hiscock, P. 1993 Bondaian technology in the Hunter Valley, New South Wales. Archaeology in Oceania 28(2): 64-75.

Hiscock, P. and V. Attenbrow 1996 Backed into a corner. Australian Archaeology 42: 64-65.

Howchin, W. 1934 The stone implements of the Adelaide tribe of Aborigines now extinct. Gillingham.

Kamminga, J. 1985 The Pirri Graver. Australian Aboriginal Studies 2: 2-25.

Kenyon, A.S. 1927 Stone implements on Aboriginal camping grounds, Victorian Naturalist 43: 280-285

Kenyon, A. S. and Stirling, D. L. 1900 Australian Aboriginal stone implements. A suggested classification. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 13: 191-197.

Lorblanchet, M., and R. Jones 1979 Les premieres fouilles a Dampier (Australie occidentale), et leur place dans l'ensembl australien. Bulletin de la Societe Prehistorique Francaise 76: 463-487.

McCarthy, F.D. 1949 The prehistoric cultures of Australia. Oceania 19: 305-19.

McCarthy, F.D. 1958 Culture succession in south eastern Australia. Mankind 5: 177-190

McCarthy, F.D. 1967 Australian Aboriginal Stone implements. Australian Museum, Sydney.

Mitchell, S. R. 1949 Stone Age Craftsmen: stone tools and camping places of the Australian Aborigines. Melbourne: Tait Book Company.

Morwood, M. J. 1981 Archaeology of the Central Queensland Highlands: the stone component. Archaeology in Oceania 16(1): 1-52.

Mulvaney, D. J. 1977 Classification and typology in Australia: The first 340 years. Pp.263-268 in R. V. S. Wright (Ed) Stone tools as cultural markers: Changes, evolution and complexity. Humanities Press.

Mulvaney, D. J., and Joyce, E.B. 1965. Archaeological and geomorphological investigations on Mt. Moffatt Station, Queensland, Australia. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 31: 147-212.

Noetling, F. 1907 Notes on the Tasmanian Amorpholithes, Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania 1907: 1-37.

O’Connell, J.F. 1977 Aspects of variation in central Australian lithic assemblages. Pp.269-281 in R.V.S. Wright (ed.) Stone tools as cultural markers: change, evolution and complexity. Sydney: Humanities Press.

Smith, M.A. 1985 A morphological comparison of central Australian seedgrinding implements and Australian Pleistocene-age grindstones. The Beagle 2(1): 23-38.

Tindale, N. B. 1968 Nomenclature of archaeological cultures and associated implements in Australia. Records of the South Australian Museum 15: 615-40

Towle, C. C. 1930 Certain Stone Implements of the scraper family found along the coast of New South Wales. Eastwood Press

Towle, C. C. 1934 Stone scrapers: an inquiry concerning a certain conventionalized type found along the cost of New South Wales. Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales 68(2): 117-143.

Cooper, H. M. 1954 Material culture of Australian Aborigines Part 1. Progressive modification of a stone artefact. Records of the South Australian Museum 11:91-7.

Cundy, B.J. 1985 The secondary use and reduction of cylindro-conical stone artifacts from the Northern Territory. The Beagle 2(1): 115-127.

Gordon, D. 1993 Mousterian tool selection, reduction, and discard at Ghar, Israel. Journal of Field Archaeology. 20(2): 205-218.

(http://artalpha.anu.edu.au/web/arc/resources/papers/paa/endpoint.htm)

(http://artalpha.anu.edu.au/web/arc/resources/papers/ph/hauantiq.htm)

McNiven, I., and P. Hiscock 1988 Small unifacial pebble cores from Fraser Island, Southeast Queensland. Queensland Archaeological Research 5: 161-165.

Thomas, D.H. 1986 Points on points: a reply to Flenniken and Raymond. American Antiquity 51(3): 619-627.

Wheat, J.B. 1976 Artifact life histories: cultural templates, typology, evidence and inference. Pp.7-15 in J.S. Raymond, B. Loveseth, C. Arnold, and C. Reardon (eds) Primitive Art and Technology. University of Calgary.

6. Fracture mechanics (http://artalpha.anu.edu.au/web/arc/resources/intro/intro.htm)

Cotterell, B., and J. Kamminga 1979 The mechanics of flaking. Pp.97-112 in B.Hayden (ed.) Lithic use-wear analysis. New York: Academic Press.

Cotterell, B., J. Kamminga and F.P. Dickson 1985 The essential mechanics of conchoidal flaking. International Journal of Fracture 29: 205-221.

Crabtree, D.E. 1967a Notes on experiments in flintknapping: the flintknapper's raw materials. Tebiwa 10(1): 3-25.

Crabtree, D.E. 1967b Notes on experiments in flintknapping: 4. tools used for making flaked stone artifacts. Tebiwa 10(1): 60-73.

Crabtree, D.E. 1972 The cone fracture principle and the manufacture of lithic materials. Tebiwa 15(2): 29-42.

Crabtree, D.E. 1974 Grinding and smoothing of stone artifacts. Tebiwa 17(1): 1-6.

Dibble, H.L. and A. Pelcin 1995 The effect of hammer mass and velocity on flake mass. Journal of Archaeological Science. 22:429-439.

Lawn, B.R., and D.B.Marshall 1979 Mechanisms of microcontact fracture in brittle solids. Pp.63-82 in B.Hayden (ed.) Lithic use-wear analysis. New York: Academic Press.

Speth, J.D. 1972 Mechanical basis for percussion flaking. American Antiquity 37(1): 34-60.

Speth, J.D. 1975 Studies in hard-hammer percussion flaking: the effect of oblique impact. American Antiquity 40: 203-207.

Tsirk, A. 1979 Regarding fracture initiations. Pp.83-96 in B.Hayden (ed.) Lithic Use-Wear Analysis. New York: Academic Press.

Fladmark, K.R. 1982 Microdebitage analysis: initial considerations Journal of Archaeological Science 9: 205-220.

Noetling,F. 1911 Notes on the marks of percussion on Siliceous rocks Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania, 1911: 1-20.

Sullivan, A. P. and K. C. Rozen 1985 Debitage analysis and archaeological interpretation. American Antiquity 50:755-779.

Dibble, H.L. and A. Pelcin 1995 The effect of hammer mass and velocity on flake mass. Journal of Archaeological Science. 22: 429-439.

Mewhinney, H. 1964 A skeptic views the billet flake. American Antiquity 30(2): 203-205.

Crabtree, D.E., and B.R. Butler 1964 Notes on experiments in flintknapping: 1. heat treatment of silica minerals. Tebiwa 7(1): 1-7.

Mandeville, M. 1973 A consideration of thermal pretreatment of chert. Plains Anthropologist 18: 177-202.

Mandeville, M.D., and J.J. Flenniken 1974 A comparison of the flaking qualities of Nehawka Chert before and after thermal pretreatment. Plains Anthropologist 19: 146-148.

Patterson, L.W. and J.B. Sollberger 1979 Water treatment of flint Lithic Technology 8: 50-51.

Purdy, B.A. 1974 Investigations concerning the thermal alteration of silica minerals: an archaeological approach. Tebiwa 17(1): 37-66.

Clarke, J.D. 1958 The natural fracture of pebbles from the Bakota Gorge, Northern Rhodesia, and its bearing on the Kafuan Industries of Africa. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 24: 64-77.

Howchin, W. 1921 On the occurrence of Aboriginal Stone Implements of Unusual Types in the Tableland Regions of Central Australia. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 45: 206-230.

Howchin, W. 1933 A rejoinder to some recent Ethnological Papers. Records of the South Australian Museum 5(1): 1-11.

Oakley, K.P. 1952 Man the tool-maker. London: British Museum.

Oakley, K.P. 1969 Man, the skilled Tool-maker. Antiquity 43: 222-224.

Tindale, N. B. 1932 Notes on the supposed primitive stone implements from the tablelands regions of Central Australia. Records of the South Australian Museum 4(4): 483-488.

Toth, N. 1985 The Oldowan reassessed: a closer look at early stone artefacts. Journal of Archaeological Science 12: 101-120

Wright, R. V. S. 1972 Imitative learning of a flake stone technology: the case of an orangutan. Mankind 8: 296-306

Hiscock, P. 1990 A study in scarlet: the taphonomy of inorganic artefacts. Pp.34-49 in S. Solomon, I. Davidson, and D. Watson (Eds) Problem solving in Taphonomy: studies related to the Archaeology of Europe, Africa and Oceania. Tempus monograph 2, University of Queensland.

Purdy, B.A. and D.E. Clark 1979 Weathering of thermally altered prehistoric stone implements. Lithic Technology 8(2): 20-21.

Hall, J. and W. Love 1985 Prickly Bush, a site with backed blades on the Brisbane River: a pilot study towards the measurement of site "disturbance". Queensland Archaeological Research 2: 71-81.

Mallouf, R.J. 1982 An analysis of plow-damaged chert artifacts: the Brookeen Creek cache (41HI86), Hill County, Texas. Journal of Field Archaeology 9(1): 79-98.

Bunn, H., J.W.K.Harris, G.Isaac, Z.Kaufulo, E.Kroll, K.Shick, N.Toth, and A.K.Behrensmeyer 1980 FxJj50: an early Pleistocene site in northern Kenya. World Archaeology 12(2): 109-136.

Crabtree, D.E. 1966 A stoneworker's approach to analyzing and replicating the Lindenmeier Folsom. Tebiwa 9(1): 3-39.

Crabtree, D.E., and F. Bordes 1969 The Corbiac blade technique and other experiments. Tebiwa 12(2): 1-21.

Crabtree, D.E., and B.R.Butler 1964 Notes on experiments in flintknapping: 1. heat treatment of silica minerals. Tebiwa 7(1): 1-7.

Flenniken, J.J. 1978 Re-evaluation of the Lindenmeier Folsom: A replication experiment in lithic technology. American Antiquity 43(3): 473-480.

Bucy, D.R. 1974 A technological analysis of a basalt quarry in Western Idaho. Tebiwa 16(2): 1-45.

Dibble, H.L. 1985 Raw-material variation in Levallois flake manufacture. Current Anthropology 26(3): 391-393.

McBryde, I. 1986 The broken artefact and functional studies. Pp.203-209 in G.K.Ward (ed.) Archaeology at ANZAAS, Canberra. Canberra Archaeological Society.

Phagan, L.J. 1976 A method for the analysis of flakes in archaeological assemblages: a Peruvian example. Unpublished PhD thesis. Ohio State University.

Pearce, R.H. 1973 Uniformity of the Australian backed blade tradition. Mankind 9(2): 89-95.

Ranere, A.J. 1975 Toolmaking and tool use among the Preceramic peoples of Panama. Pp.173-210 in E.H.Swanson (ed.) Lithic Technology. Chicago: Mouton.

Shawcross, W. 1964 Stone flake industries in New Zealand. The Journal of the Polynesian Society 73: 7-25.

Straus, L.G. 1980 The role of raw materials in lithic assemblage variability. Lithic Technology 9(3): 68-72.

Cahen, D., and L.H.Keeley 1980 Not less than two, not more than three. World Archaeology 12(2):166-180.

Cundy, B.J. 1985 The secondary use and reduction of cylindro-conical stone artifacts from the Northern Territory. The Beagle 2(1): 115-127.

Flenniken, J. J., and White, J. P. 1985. Australian flaked stone tools: a technological perspective. Records of the Australian Museum 36: 131-151.

Hiscock, P. 1986 The conjoin sequence diagram: a method of describing conjoin sets. Queensland Archaeological Research 3: 159-166.

Leach, H.M. 1984 Jigsaw: reconstructive lithic technology. Pp.107-118 in J.E.Ericson and B.E.Purdy (eds) Prehistoric quarries and lithic production. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Marks, A.E., and P.Volkman 1987 Technological variability and change seen through core reconstruction. Pp.11-20 in G.de G.Sieveking and M.Newcomer (eds) The human uses of flint and chert. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Noetling, F. 1908 Notes on a chipped boulder found near Kempton. Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania 1-9.

Schneider, J.S. 1996 Quarrying and production of Milling implements at Antelope Hill, Arizona. Journal of Field Archaeology. 23(3):299-311.

TBA

Bamforth, D.B. 1988 Investigating microwear Polishes with blind tests: the Institute results in context. Journal of Archaeological Science 15:11-23

Crabtree, D.E. 1973 The obtuse angle as a functional edge. Tebiwa 16(2): 46-53.

Fergusson, W.C. 1980 Edge-angle classification of the Quininup Brook implements: testing the ethnographic analogy. Archaeology and Physical Anthropology in Oceania 15(1): 56-72.

Hayden, B. (ed.). 1979 Lithic use-wear analysis. Academic Press.

Hiscock, P. 1982 The real meaning of edge angles? Australian Archaeology 14: 79-85.

Kamminga,J. 1977 A functional study of an Australian tool type: The elouera. Pp.205-212 in R.V.S.Wright (Ed) Stone tools as cultural markers: Change, evolution and complexity, AIAS

Kamminga,J. 1980 A functional investigation of Australian microliths, The Artefact 5: 1-18.

Kamminga,J. 1981 The bevelled pounder: an Aboriginal stone tool type from south-east Queensland, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland. 92: 31-35

Kamminga, J. 1982. Over the edge. Functional Analysis of Australian Stone Tools. Occasional Papers in Anthropology 11.

Keeley, L.H. 1980 Experimental determination of stone tool uses. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Vaughn, P.C. 1985 Use-wear analysis of flaked tools. University of Arizona Press.

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