Minimum reading:

1 Baker, P.T. (1984) The adaptive limits of human populations. Man (N.S.), 19, 1-14.

WEEK 2 - JULY 21: Natural human diets

Question:

What is the natural diet, or range of diets, for our species?

9 Haas, J.D. and Harrison, G.G. (1977) Nutritional anthropology and biological adaptation. Annual Review of Anthropology, 6, 69-101.

AND

at least ONE of:-

26 Milton, K. (1993) Diet and primate evolution. Scientific American, 269(2), 70-83.

34 O'Dea, K. (1991) Traditional diet and food preferences of Australian Aboriginal hunter-gatherers. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, 334, 233-241.

43 Stinson, S. (1992) Nutritional adaptation. Annual Review of Anthropology, 21, 143-170.

Further reading suggestions (not in brick):-

de Garine, I. (1972) The sociocultural aspects of nutrition. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 1, 143-163.

Gordon, K.D. (1987) Evolutionary perspectives on human diet. In Nutritional Anthropology, ed. F.E. Johnston. New York: Liss.

Harding, R.S.O. and Teleki, G. (eds.)(1981) Omnivorous Primates. New York: Columbia University Press.

Harris, M. and Ross, E.B. (eds.)(1987) Food and Evolution. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

Widdowson, E.M. and Whiten, A. (eds.)(1991) Foraging strategies and natural diet of monkeys, apes and humans. Special issue of Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, 334, 159-295.

WEEK 3 - AUGUST 4: Famine, food shortage and malnutrition

Question:

What happens in famines and general food shortages?

Points to consider:

What do we mean by 'famine'?
What are the causes of famines?
Are they simply due to crop failures etc.?
Or are there other causes?
What are the effects of famines?
How does the human body respond to undernutrition -
chronic and acute?
severe and mild?
What are the different forms of undernutrition?
How are they differentiated?
How are different sections of the population affected?
Why are they differently affected?
What are the other effects of famine and undernutrition?

Minimum reading:

58 Scrimshaw, N.S. (1987) The phenomenon of famine. Annual Review of Nutrition, 7, 1-21.

AND

68 Richards, P. (1992) Famine (and war) in Africa: what do anthropologists have to say? Anthropology Today, 8(6), 3-5

Suggested topics:

Studies of specific famines or food shortages, such as:
A European famine, e.g. Ireland 1840s
An Asian famine, e.g. Bengal 1940s

Further reading suggestions (not in brick):-

Harrison, G.A. (ed.)(1988) Famine. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Keys, A., Brozek, J., Henschel, A., Mickelson, O. and Taylor, H.L. (1950) The Biology of Human Starvation. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press

Shipton, P. (1990) African famines and food security: anthropological perspectives. Annual Review of Anthropology, 19, 353-394.

Sorokin, P.A. (1975) Hunger as a Factor in Human Affairs. Gainsville: University of Florida Press.

Stein, Z., Susser, M., Suenger, G., and Marolla, F. (1975) Famine and Human Development: the Dutch Hunger Winter of 1944-45. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Swift, J. (1977) Sahelian pastoralists: underdevelopment, desertification and famine. Annual Review of Anthropology, 6, 457-478.

Winick, M. (ed.)(1979) Hunger Disease: Studies by the Jewish Physicians in the Warsaw Ghetto. Wiley: New York.

Woodham-Smith, C. (1968) The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845-9. London: New English Library.

WEEK 4 - AUGUST 11: Nutritional deficiencies

Question:

What impact do specific nutrient deficiencies have?

Points to consider:

What are our specific nutrient requirements?
How do we know?
What is the biological basis of these requirements?
What happens biologically if these requirements are not met?
What are the chief sources of these nutrients?
How variable are these sources from society to society?
Are different societies or populations at different risks?
Are different groups within societies at different risks?
If so, in either case, why?
Is a deficiency disease solely due to nutrient deficiency?
Or are there complicating factors?
What intervention programs have been tried?
How successful has intervention been?
Can any more successful intervention be envisaged?

Minimum reading:

71 Scrimshaw, N.S. and Young, V.R. (1976) The requirements of human nutrition. Scientific American 235(3), 51-64. (Also in various Scientific American collections).

AND

85 May, J.M. (1977) Deficiency diseases. In World Geography of Human Disease, ed. G.M. Howe. London: Academic Press.

Suggested topics:

Case studies of specific vitamin, mineral or trace element deficiencies, such as:-
Vitamin D deficiency
Iron deficiency

Further reading suggestions (not in brick):-

Annual Review of Nutrition. [Worth browsing]

Davidson, S., Passmore, R., Brock, J.F. and Truswell, A.S. (1986). Human Nutrition and Dietetics (8th ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.

Gopalan, C. (1992) The contribution of nutrition research to the control of undernutrition: the Indian experience. Annual Review of Nutrition, 12, 1-17.

Greene, L.S. (ed.) (1977). Malnutrition, Behaviour and Social Organization. New York: Academic Press.

Maberly, G.F., Trowbridge, F.L., Yip, R., Sullivan, K.M. and West, C.E. (1994) Programs against micronutrient malnutrition: ending hidden hunger. Annual Review of Public Health, 15, 277-301.

Stuart-Macadam, P. and Kent, S. (eds.)(1992) Diet, Demography and Disease: Changing Perspectives on Anaemia. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.

WEEK 5 - AUGUST 18: Health and nutrition in small-scale societies

Question:

How healthy a life do people lead in contemporary and recent small-scale societies? How do ecology and demography affect infectious disease patterns there? What other causes of ill-health are important? How well nourished are members of these societies?

Points to consider:

Small-scale societies
Referring simply to people who live in small groups, relatively cut off from others?
Isolated in a literal sense (i.e. on islands) or separated by other barriers?
Autonomous or part of a wider sociopolitical unit?
If the latter, how intensive are outside contacts?
Economy: hunter-gatherer, hunter-horticulturalist, swidden agriculturalist, other?

Infectious disease
What different types of disease patterns can be recognized - epidemic, endemic, etc.?
What other terms need attention to definition - prevalence, incidence, etc.?
What simple mathematical ideas help explain transmission?
What features of an infectious disease affect transmission?
What features of host response affect transmission?
What features of the physical and biotic environment affect it?
What features of population size and structure affect it?
What about behaviour patterns and cultural practices?
Do these variables explain disease pattern differences between societies or diseases?
Do they suggest how to attempt eradication or control?
Do they explain the ease or difficulty of eradication?
What control programmes are most effective?
What were the aims of your case study survey and how was it conducted?

Nutrition
What kinds of foods are available to small-scale societies?
What factors affect their choices amongst them?
Are their diets nutritionally adequate?
Are they subject to overall shortage - permanently? - seasonally? - occasionally?
Or to excess or shortage of specific nutrients? With what consequences?
Are particular sectors of society nutritionally vulnerable? - if so, which?
How do any nutrient shortages interact with growth? health problems? workloads?
Are the answers to these questions uniform for all small-scale societies?

Hunter-gatherers
What range of variation in way of life does the term 'hunter-gatherer' cover?
What assumptions are implied, regarding different aspects of subsistence and society?
Are these assumptions problematic - in the present context?
What way of life were the people living when surveyed for the case study you consider?
Can results on this group adequately represent 20th-century hunter-gatherer health?
Can they serve as a basis for 'ethnographic analogy' to interpret past hunter-gatherers?

Horticulturalists and agriculturalists
Review the same questions as for hunter-gatherers.
What range of health and nutritional status is found amongst these societies?
What differences and similarities do you find, relative to hunter-gatherers?
What fundamental factors are at work in determining health in such societies today?
Was a shift away from hunting & gathering beneficial nutritionally? epidemiologically?
Are effects of that shift still with agriculturalists of all kinds today?

106 Fenner, F. (1980) Sociocultural change and environmental diseases. In Changing Disease Patterns and Human Behaviour, ed. N.F. Stanley and R.A. Joske. London: Academic Press.

AND

117 Cliff, A. and Haggett, P. (1984) Island epidemics. Scientific American, 250(5), 110-117.

Suggested topics:
Health and nutrition in a specific 'traditional' small-scale society
Health and nutrition in a more 'modernized' but physically isolated population

Further reading suggestions (not in brick):-

Ciba Foundation (ed.)(1977) Health and Disease in Tribal Societies. Ciba Foundation Symposium 49 (new series). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Janes, C.R., Stall, R. and Gifford, S.M. (eds.)(1986) Anthropology and Epidemiology. Dordrecht: Reidel.

McElroy, A. and Townsend, P.K. (1985, 2nd.ed. 1990) Medical Anthropology in Ecological Perspective. Boulder (Colorado): Westview Press.

Rothschild, H.R. (ed.) (1981) Biocultural Aspects of Disease. New York: Academic Press.

Stanley, N.F. and Joske, R.A. (eds.) (1980) Changing Disease Patterns and Human Behaviour. London: Academic Press.

Truswell, A.S. and Hansen, J.D.L. (1976) Medical research among the !Kung. In Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers: Studies of the !Kung and their Neighbours. Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University Press.

Wirsing, R. (1985) The health of traditional societies and the effects of acculturation. Current Anthropology, 26, 303-322.

WEEK 6 - AUGUST 25: Health and nutrition in past populations

Question:
What can direct (e.g. skeletal, archaeological, historical) evidence tell us about disease patterns in past populations? About the origins and spread of specific infectious diseases? And about past diet and nutritional health? What can such evidence not tell us?

Points to consider:

How can we discover how healthy or unhealthy a past population was?
Especially if we prefer direct evidence to inferfence based on ethnographic analogy?
What are the problems in assessing health from the skeletal or other direct evidence?
How successfully does palaeopathology overcome these?
What checks are available on the reliability of diagnoses?
Does palaeopathology allow statements about populations; if not, why not?
How well can palaeopathology diagnose specific diseases?
Or draw general conclusions about good or poor health?
Or about past diet and nutritional status?
What are the problems and benefits of historical sources
What is the past history and geography of specific diseases?
What can we know about the pre-contact health of non-European peoples?
And about the interrelationship of health and economic change with time anywhere?
How healthy and well nourished were prehistoric hunter-gatherers? agriculturalists?
In whatever cases you consider, how prevalent is the overall evidence of ill-health?
What main groups of pathology can be identified?
At what ages did people die?
How often are the observed pathologies the cause of death?
How prevalent are each of these main groups of pathology?
Can dietary causes of pathology be distinguished from others?
Did people mainly get enough to eat?
If not, were they short of food overall? - permanently? seasonally? irrregularly?
Or was the food poor in quality, leading to shortages of specific nutrients only?
How may nutritional problems have affected vulnerability to infection?
What infections were present and at what prevalence?
What is the evidence for trauma? poisoning? genetic disease? degenerative disease?
What is the overall burden of disease? chronic non-fatal conditions? mortality?
Which sub-groups were most vulnerable?
How robust and generalizable are the conclusions?
How adverse were the early health impacts of European or other outside contacts?
What was the nature of the health problems arising from outside contacts?
How prominent were exotic infections in particular? Why?

Minimum reading:

125 Ortner, D.J. (1992) Skeletal palaeopathology: probabilities, possibilities and impossibilities. In Disease and Demography in the Americas, ed. J.W. Verano and D.H. Ubelaker. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press.

AND

134 Dobyns, H.F. (1993) Disease transfer at contact. Annual Review of Anthropology, 22, 273-291.

Suggested topics:
Health and nutrition of specific population
Historical origins & dispersion of a chosen disease (e.g. syphilis, leprosy)

Further reading suggestions (not in brick):-

Butlin, N. (1983) Our Original Aggression: Aboriginal Populations of Southeastern Australia 1788-1850. Sydney: Allen & Unwin.

Cohen, M.N. and Armelagos, G.J. (eds.)(1984) Palaeopathology at the Origins of Agriculture. Orlando: Academic Press.

Cohen, M.N. (1989) Health and the Rise of Civilization. New Haven (Connecticut): Yale University Press.

Gilbert, R.I. and Mielke, J.H. (eds.)(1985) Analysis of Prehistoric Diets. New York: Academic Press.

Goldsmid, J. (1988) The Deadly Legacy: Australian History and Transmissible Disease. Kensington (NSW): University of New South Wales Press.

Kiple, K.F. (ed.)(1993) The Cambridge World History of Human Disease. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Merbs, C.F. (1992) A New World of infectious disease. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 35, 3-42.

Saunders, S. and Katzenberg, M.A. (eds.) (1992) Skeletal Biology of Past Peoples: Research Methods. New York: Wiley-Liss.

Verano, J.W. and Ubelaker, D.H. (eds.)(1992) Disease and Demography in the Americas. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press.

Webb, S. (1984) Intensification, population and social change in south-eastern Australia: the skeletal evidence. Aboriginal History, 8, 154-172.

Wing, E.S. and Brown, A.B. (1979). Palaeonutrition. New York: Academic Press.

WEEK 7 - SEPTEMBER 1: Development, health and nutrition in the Third World

Question:

What are the main health problems in Third World countries today?
What are their dynamics, fundamental causes and ultimate impacts?

Points to consider:

What is the overall scale of health problems in the cases you consider?
How are they measured? mortality? morbidity? prevalence, incidence, etc.?
Are they epidemic, endemic, etc.?
What societies or subgroups within societies (age-groups etc.) do they most affect?
Why are some societies or subgroups within a society more affected than others?
What are the leading causes or groups of causes of ill-health in each case?
What is the overall importance of infections compared with other causes of ill-health?
What are the prospects for future trends for infectious disease in a specific case?
What can explain the overall levels and patterns of occurrence of infections?
What simple mathematical ideas help explain transmission of infections?
What features of an infectious disease affect transmission?
What features of host response affect transmission?
What features of the physical and biotic environment affect it?
What features of population size and structure affect it?
What about behaviour patterns and cultural practices?
How do background factors relate to the immediate causes of disease process?
What are the burdens, in terms of death and of burden of chronic ill-health?
Do these variables explain differences between different societies or diseases?
Do they suggest how to attempt eradication or control?
Do they explain the ease or difficulty of eradication?
What control programmes are most effective?
How do non-infectious diseases, trauma and other causes of pathology compare?

Mimimum reading:

144 Huss-Ashmore, R. and Johnston, F.E. (1985) Bioanthropological research in developing countries. Annual Review of Anthropology, 14, 475-528.

Suggested topics:

Health problems of a specific Third World country or setting
A specific disease as a health problem in the Third World

Further reading suggestions (not in brick):-

Bruce-Chwatt, L.J. (1987) Malaria and its control: present situation and future prospects. Annual Review of Public Health, 8, 75-110.

Caldwell, J., Findley, S., Caldwell, P., Santow, G., Cosford, W., Braid, J. and Broers-Freeman, D. (eds.)(1990). What We Know About Health Transition: the Cultural, Social and Behavioural Determinants of Health. Canberra: Health Transition Centre, Australian National University.

Harrison, G.A. and Waterlow, J.C. (eds.) (1990). Diet and Disease in Traditional and Developing Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Howe, G.M. (ed.) (1977). World Geography of Human Disease. London: Academic Press.

Kiple, K.F. (ed.)(1993) The Cambridge World History of Human Disease. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Rothschild, H.R. (ed.) (1981) Biocultural Aspects of Disease. New York: Academic Press.

Stanley, N.F. and Joske, R.A. (eds.) (1980) Changing Disease Patterns and Human Behaviour. London: Academic Press.

WEEK 8 - September 8: Modernization, health and nutrition in Western societies

Question:

Has modernization improved health and nutrition in Western (First-World) societies?
If so, how, and in what respects? If not, why not?

Points to consider:

What were pre-industrial European health patterns like?
How did they compare with the patterns discussed last week?
What changes took place over the 19th and 20th centuries?
What factors were responsible for these historical changes?
How important was personal medical treatment?
What other factors were involved?
What was the impact of the decline in infections?
Was rising prevalence of non-infectious disease inevitable?
What are the major health hazards of modernized societies?
What kinds of interventions best counteract these hazards?
Is there a European/Western 'health transition' pattern?
What are the health profiles of Western countries like now?
What are the principal causes of death and ill-health?
How heavy is the burden they exert?
What are the likely prospects for the future?
What steps are needed to improve the health of Western populations now?
What part has dietary and nutritional change played?
What problems of under- and/or over-nutrition occur in Western societies
Why do they occur? What are their impacts?
What other behavioural changes of modernization are important?

Minimum reading:

172 Ruzicka, L. and Kane, P. (1990) Health transition: the course of morbidity and mortality. In What We Know About Health Transition: the Cultural, Social and Behavioural Determinants of Health, ed. J. Caldwell, S. Findley, P. Caldwell, G. Santow, W. Cosford, J. Braid and D. Broers-Freeman. Canberra: Health Transition Centre, Australian National University.

AND

186 Rose, G.A. (1976) Epidemiological evidence for the effects of the urban environment. In Man in Urban Environments, ed. G.A. Harrison and J.B. Gibson. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Suggested topics:-

Health impact of urban environments
Health impact of Western diets

Further reading suggestions (not in brick):-

Caldwell, J., Findley, S., Caldwell, P., Santow, G., Cosford, W., Braid, J. and Broers-Freeman, D. (eds.)(1990). What We Know About Health Transition: the Cultural, Social and Behavioural Determinants of Health. Canberra: Health Transition Centre, Australian National University.

Cohen, L.A. (1987) Diet and cancer. Scientific American, 257(5), 42-48.

Howe, G.M. (ed.) (1977). World Geography of Human Disease. London: Academic Press.

Jenkins, C.D. (1977) Epidemiological studies of the psychosomatic aspects of coronary heart disease. In Epidemiologic Studies in Psychosomatic Medicine, ed. S. Kasl and F. Reichsman. Basel: Karger.

Kiple, K.F. (ed.)(1993) The Cambridge World History of Human Disease. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Rothschild, H.R. (ed.) (1981) Biocultural Aspects of Disease. New York: Academic Press.

Stanley, N.F. and Joske, R.A. (eds.) (1980) Changing Disease Patterns and Human Behaviour. London: Academic Press.

Trowell, H.C. and Burkitt, D.P. (eds.) (1981) Western Diseases: their Emergence and Prevention. London: Edward Arnold.

WEEK 9 - SEPTEMBER 15: Health and nutrition of indigenous minorities

Question:

What health and nutritional problems are experienced by indigenous groups, especially indigenous minorities? What causal factors underlie these problems?

Points to consider:

How has the health profile of indigenous people changed over the period since European contacts?
What health problems do indigenous (Fourth-World) groups experience nowadays?
What dynamic and trend do such problems have in particular cases?
How heavy is the overall burden of ill-health?
On whom does it fall most severely?
What causes of illness and death are most prevalent, and why?
How far are the answers to these questions similar for different Fourth-World groups?
Are Fourth-World health problems similar to First-World or Third-World ones?
Are the causes similar?
How similar are the different Fourth-World groups?
Is there a 'health transition' pattern in the Fourth World?
What processes underlie any Fourth World health changes and trends?
What are the leading Fourth World health problems now?
What are the most important priorities for solving them?
Through what measures might they be tackled?

Minimum reading:

193 Kunitz, S.J. (1990) Disease and the destruction of indigenous populations. Working Paper 15, NCEPH, ANU. Also in Humanity, Culture and Social Life: an Encyclopaedia of Anthropology, ed. T. Ingold, 1994. London: Routledge.

AND

At least ONE of the following chapters/articles:-

237 Prior, I. and Tasman-Jones, C. (1981) New Zealand Maori and Pacific Polynesians. In Western Diseases: their Emergence and Prevention, ed. H.C. Trowell and D.P. Burkitt. London: Edward Arnold.

Australia -

258 Thomson, N. (1991) A review of Aboriginal health status. In The Health of Aboriginal Australia, ed. J. Reid and P. Trompf. Sydney: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Suggested topics:

Maori health
North American Indian health

Further reading suggestions (not in brick):-

Caldwell, J., Findley, S., Caldwell, P., Santow, G., Cosford, W., Braid, J. and Broers-Freeman, D. (eds.)(1990). What We Know About Health Transition: the Cultural, Social and Behavioural Determinants of Health. Canberra: Health Transition Centre, Australian National University.

Howe, G.M. (ed.) (1977). World Geography of Human Disease. London: Academic Press.

Kiple, K.F. (ed.)(1993) The Cambridge World History of Human Disease. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Rothschild, H.R. (ed.) (1981) Biocultural Aspects of Disease. New York: Academic Press.

Stanley, N.F. and Joske, R.A. (eds.) (1980) Changing Disease Patterns and Human Behaviour. London: Academic Press.

Trowell, H.C. and Burkitt, D.P. (eds.) (1981) Western Diseases: their Emergence and Prevention. London: Edward Arnold.

Weiss, K.M., Buchanan, A.V., Valdez, R., Moore, J.H. and Campbell, J. (1993) Amerindians and the price of modernization. In Urban Ecology and Health in the Third World, ed. L.M. Schell, M.T. Smith and A. Bilsborough. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

but especially references in brick readings

***** MID-SEMESTER BREAK *****

WEEK 10 - OCTOBER 6: Thermal stresses and responses

Question:
How do people respond to the stresses of heat and cold?

Points to consider:
Why can heat and cold constitute 'stresses'?
What happens if such stress is not effectively coped with?
What are the body's immediate responses to this stress?
Do these responses reduce this stress? If so, how?
What happens as exposure is continued or repeated?
How functional are these changes with continued exposure?
How does this affect work capacity? infection? growth? fertility and mortality?
What are the findings of experimental laboratory studies?
How do these compare with population field studies?
Do population studies from different hot, or different cold, regions agree?
What are the implications of their agreeing or not?
How effectively do people find a microclimate in which they avoid exposure?
By what behavioural, cultural, technological means do they respond to exposure?
Is there evidence for developmental adaptation?
Is there evidence for population genetic differences?
How well has evolution prepared us to adapt to these stresses?

Minimum reading:

280 Hanna, J.M. and Brown, D.E. (1983) Human heat tolerance: an anthropological perspective. Annual Review of Anthropology, 12, 259-284.

AND

294 So, J.K. (1980) Human biological adaptation to arctic and subarctic zones. Annual Review of Anthropology, 9, 63-82. [Not the section on morphological adaptation.]

Suggested topics:
Patterns of exposure and response to thermal stress, mainly in indigenous populations, specifically:-
Heat stress
Cold stress

Further reading suggestions (not in brick):-

Baker, P.T. and Weiner, J.S. (eds.) (1966). Biology of Human Adaptability. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Clark, R.P. and Edholm, O.G. (1985). Man and his Thermal Environment. London: E. Arnold.

Dill, D.B., Adolph, E.F. and Wilber, C.G. (eds.)(1964) Adaptation to the Environment (Handbook of Physiology, Section 4). Washington: American Physiological Society.

Fox, R.H., Even-Paz, Z., Woodward, P.M. and Jack, J.W. (1973) A study of temperature regulation in Yemenite and Kurdish Jews in Israel. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, 266, 149-168.

Itoh, S. (1974) Physiology of Cold-Adapted Man. Sapporro: Hokkaido University Press.

LeBlanc, J. (1975) Man in the Cold. Springfield (Illinois): Thomas.

Rivolier, J., Goldsmith, R., Lugg, D.J. and Taylor, A.J.W. (eds.) (1988) Man in the Antarctic. London: Taylor and Francis.

Steegmann, A.T. (1977) Finger temperatures during work in natural cold : the Northern Ojibwa. Human Biology, 49, 349-374.

Scholander, P.F., Hammel, H.T., Hart, J.S., LeMessurier, D.G. and Steen, J. (1958) Cold adaptation in Australian Aborigines. Journal of Applied Physiology, 13, 211-218.

Stanier, M.W., Mount, L.E. and Bligh, J. (1984). Energy Balance and Temperature Regulation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Wyndham, C.H., MacPherson, R.K. and Munro, A. (1964) Reactions to heat of aborigines and Caucasians. Journal of Applied Physiology, 19, 1055-1058.

WEEK 11 - OCTOBER 13: Altitude stresses and responses

Question:
How do humans respond to high altitudes?

Points to consider:
What are the salient features of high altitude environments?
Which of these constitute 'stresses', and why?
Which is the most important of these?
What happens if this stress is not effectively coped with?
What are the body's immediate responses to this stress?
Do these responses reduce this stress? If so, how?
What happens as exposure is continued or repeated?
How functional are these changes with continued exposure?
How does this affect work capacity? infection? growth? fertility and mortality?
What are the findings of experimental laboratory studies?
How do these compare with high-altitude population studies?
Do population studies from different high regions agree?
What are the implications of agreement or non-agreement?
How effectively do people find a microclimate in which they avoid exposure?
By what behavioural, cultural, technological means do they respond to exposure?
Is there evidence for developmental adaptation?
Is there evidence for population genetic differences?
How well has evolution prepared us to adapt to this stress?

Minimum reading:

305 Clegg, E.J., Harrison, G.A. and Baker, P.T. (1970) The impact of high altitudes on human populations. Human Biology, 42, 486-518.

OR

322 Moore, L.G. and Regensteiner, J.G. (1983) Adaptation to high altitude. Annual Review of Anthropology, 12, 285-304.

Suggested topics:
Studies of high altitude exposure and response in specific parts of the world, comparatively where possible, specifically:-
Impacts on physiological functioning
Impacts on growth and development

Further reading suggestions (not in brick):-

Baker, P.T. (ed.) (1980). Biology of High-Altitude Peoples. (International Biological Programme, 14). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Baker, P.T. and Little, M.A. (eds.)(1976). Man in the Andes. (U.S./I.B.P. synthesis, 1). Stroudsburg (Pennsylvania): Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross.

Beall, C.M., Brittenham, G.M., Macuaga, F. and Barragan, M. (1990) Variation in haemoglobin concentration among samples of high-altitude natives in the Andes and the Himalayas. American Journal of Human Biology, 2, 639-651.

Schull, W.J., Rothhammer, F. and Barton, S.A. (1990) The Aymara: Strategies in Human Adaptation to a Rigorous Environment (Studies in Human Biology, 2). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.

Moore, L.G. (ed.) (1990). Symposium: Comparative High-Altitude Adaptation. American Journal of Human Biology, 2 (6), 599-673.

Pawson, I.G. (1976) Growth and development in high altitude populations. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 194, 83-98.

WEEK 12 - OCTOBER 20: Psychosocial stresses and responses

Question:
What is the physiological impact of psychologically stressful situations?

Points to consider:
In what sense has 'stress' been used in earlier tutorials?
In a psychosocial context, does 'stress' mean the same?
Is there agreement on the definition of psychosocial stress?
What situations can be recognized as stressful?
What are the criteria for this and how constant are they?
How wide is the range of situations considered stressful?
How wide is the range of physiological stress measures?
What are the method problems of these measures?
What happens physiologically in experimental exposure?
How well can this be generalized to stress in daily life?
What happens in chronic stress exposure?
What are the health implications of long-term exposure?
What do population studies tell us about stress levels?
Are different sections of society differently affected? Why?
Are different societies differently affected? Why?
What intervention or prevention might be most effective?
How well has evolution prepared us to adapt to this stress?

Minimum reading:

333 Harrison, G.A. (1980) Urbanization and stress. In Disease and Urbanization, ed. E.J. Clegg and J.P. Garlick. London: Taylor and Francis.

AND

343 Boyden, S. (1986) An integrative approach to the study of human ecology. In Human Ecology: A Gathering of Perspectives, ed. R.J. Borden. College Park (Maryland): Society for Human Ecology.

Suggested topics:
Studies in Western settings
Studies in non-Western settings

Further reading suggestions (not in brick):-

Jenner, D.A., Harrison, G.A., Prior, I.A.M., Leonetti, D.L., Fujimoto, W.J. and Kabuto, M. (1987) Inter-population comparisons of catecholamine excretion. Annals of Human Biology, 14, 1-9.

Johansson, G. and Lundberg, U. (1978) Psychophysiological aspects of stress and adaptation in technological societies. In Human Behaviour and Adaptation, ed. N. Blurton Jones and V. Reynolds. London: Taylor and Francis.

Levi, L. (ed.) (1971-87). Society, Stress and Disease. Vols. 1-5. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Lewis, D.E. (1990) Stress, migration and blood pressure in Kiribati. American Journal of Human Biology, 2, 139-151.

WEEK 13 - OCTOBER 27: Ecological perspectives on society and culture

Question:
Can cultural practices legitimately be seen as adapted to meet biological needs?

Points to consider:
What examples can be found where this is argued to be so?
Do they belong to 'schools', ecological anthropology? cultural ecology? human ecology?
What steps does the argument involve?
Does it apply specifically to 'traditional societies'?
If so, with what implication?
How logical are the steps in the argument? How plausible?
If practices meet needs, does 'adapted to meet' follow?
What evidence would make the argument convincing factually?
How far is that evidence obtainable? Actually available?
What alternative hypotheses are suggested or possible?
Would these alternatives predict different findings?
If so, which hypothesis does the evidence favour?
Do other considerations favour one hypothesis or another?
What process of past biology-culture interaction is implied?
If culture does meet biological needs in some caseswhat does that show?

Minimum reading:

355 Ellen, R.F. (1978) Problems and progress in the ethnographic analysis of small scale human ecosystems. Man (N.S.), 13, 290-303.

AND

at least ONE of the following:-

362 Rappaport, R.A. (1971) Ritual regulation of environmental relations among a New Guinea people. In Environment and Cultural Behaviour, ed. A.P. Vayda. Austin: University of Texas Press. (Originally Ethnology, 6, 17-30.)

373 Lizot, J. (1977) Population, resources and warfare among the Yanomami. Man (N.S.), 12, 497-517.

394 Thomas R.B. (1976) Energy flow at high altitude. In Man in the Andes, ed. P.T. Baker and M.A. Little. Stroudsburg: Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross.

Suggested topics:

Cases where it has been argued that cultural practices meet biological needs, e.g. related to nutrition, disease, ecology or population; or critics of such arguments, e.g.:-
Amazonia
New Guinea

Further reading suggestions (not in brick):-

Hames, R.B. and Vickers, W.T. (eds.)(1983) Adaptive Responses of Native Amazonians. New York: Academic Press

Orlove, B.S. (1980) Ecological anthropology. Annual Review of Anthropology, 9, 235-273.

Vayda, A.P. (ed.) (1969). Environment and Cultural Behaviour. Austin: University of Texas Press.

Winterhalder, B. and Smith, E.A. (eds.)(1981) Hunter-Gatherer Foraging Strategies: Ethnographic and Archaeological Analyses. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

1. Review the diet types and dietary adaptations found amongst the primates, with special attention to the apes. Drawing on whatever relevant evidence you can find, discuss how far the various pre-sapiens human forms can be considered typical apes in dietary terms.

2. Review the techniques available to researchers wishing to investigate the diet and nutrition of human populations in the unwritten past, with examples to show what can and what cannot be learnt using these techniques.

3. Imagine that you have been commissioned to conduct a nutritional survey amongst a rural developing-country population whose means of subsistence had been disrupted by a disaster. Your brief is to find out which local groups, which age/sex categories etc. should have the highest priority for food assistance. What indicator(s) of nutritional need would you use, and why?

4. Discuss the issues involved in determining quantitative energy and protein intake requirements and allowances, with special reference to the additional needs imposed by pregnancy and lactation.

5. Summarize and compare findings on the epidemiology of a specific vitamin deficiency in populations from at least two continents, and discuss what accounts for the patterns observed.

6. Write an essay on the synergism of malnutrition and infection in child health, and discuss how effective or otherwise dietary improvements are in counteracting this synergism.

7. "The worst collective decision human beings have ever made, in terms of the effects on their own health, was to abandon hunting and gathering for agriculture". Discuss.

8. Give a detailed account of the epidemiology of one of the following infectious diseases in populations from at least two continents, with attention to the environmental and/or social factors involved: tuberculosis, Lyme disease, schistosomiasis, poliomyelitis.

9. Trace the origins and subsequent prehistory/history of leprosy or syphilis, in relation to its geographical, demographic and ecological context. Where appropriate indicate the limitations of the evidence available and evaluate competing hypotheses.

10. How serious a threat does malaria currently pose worldwide to human health and survival? What are the trends, and what are the causal factors underlying them? To what solutions must malarial parts of the world look?

11. Compare the health profiles of Fourth-World (indigenous minority) populations in at least two countries with each other and with the majority populations. What accounts for the differences and similarities you find?

12. How successfully do theories which emphasize the effects of the foetal and infantile environment explain the known facts of the epidemiology of degenerative heart disease, compared with more conventional explanations?

13. How strongly does the available population health evidence on Type II diabetes support a) the 'thrifty genotype' hypothesis and b) the lifestyle theories of this disease?

14. Choose three medical conditions, other than conditions of the reproductive system, review gender differences in frequencies of these diseases found by epidemiological studies in specific populations, and discuss how these gender differences might have arisen.

15. How far is it true that human physiological responses to heat stress and cold stress are essentially symmetrical mirror images of each other? Comment on why this is, or is not, so.

16. How successfully, and by what means, have human populations been able to overcome the challenges of respiratory and exercise physiology, reproduction and growth at altitudes over 3,000 metres above sea level? Answer by reference to at least two such populations.

17. What is psychosocial stress and how does it manifest itself physiologically? What are the respective roles of laboratory studies and population studies in research on the physiological correlates of psychosocial stress?

18. To what extent do the concepts and research methods of animal ecology lend themselves validly to understanding the place of human communities in ecosystems? Answer by reference to selected specific studies which have set themselves this aim.

19. How successfully have particular theoretical paradigms been able to view human cultural behaviour as another aspect of human adaptation to the environment? Choose a selection of actual studies in one or more such paradigms on which to base your discussion.

20. What kinds of biological challenges do urban environments present for human health and survival? Can an analogy be made between physiological responses to physical challenges such as thermal stress and responses to urban environments? Use results from actual studies to support your answer.

RDA

Baker, P.T. (1984) The adaptive limits of human populations. Man (N.S.), 19, 1-14.

Baker, P.T. (1997) The eternal triangle - genes, phenotype and environment. American Journal of Human Biology, 9, 93-101.

Boyden, S. (1986) An integrative approach to the study of human ecology. In Human Ecology: A Gathering of Perspectives, ed. R.J. Borden. College Park (Maryland): Society for Human Ecology.

Frisancho, A.R. (1979) Chapter 1: Principles and definitions in the study of human adaptation. In Human Adaptation. St. Louis: Mosby.

Goodman, A.H., Thomas, R.B., Swedlund, A.C. and Armelagos, G.J. (1988) Biocultural perspectives on stress in prehistoric, historical and contemporary population research. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 31, 169-202.

Harrison, G.A. (ed.)(1991) Ecological success and its measurement. Journal of Human Ecology, Special issue 1.

Harrison, G.A. (ed.)(1993) Human Adaptation (Biosocial Society Series 6). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Lewontin, R.C. (1978) Adaptation. Scientific American 239(3), 213-230. (Reprinted in some Scientific American collections).

Mazess, R.B. (1975) Biological adaptation : aptitudes and acclimatization. In Biosocial Interrelations in Population Adaptation, ed. E.S. Watts, F.E. Johnston and G.W. Lasker. The Hague: Mouton.

Schmitt, L.H. (1995) Using within-populational variability to measure environmental optimality and adaptability. In Human Populations: Diversity and Adaptation, ed. A.J. Boyce and V. Reynolds. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Thomas, R.B., Gage, T.B. and Little, M.A. (1989) Reflections on adaptive and ecological models. In Human Population Biology: a Transdisciplinary Science, ed. M.A. Little and J.D. Haas. New York: Oxford University Press.

Thomas, R.B., Winterhalder, B. and McRae, S.D. (1979) An anthropological approach to human ecology and adaptive dynamics. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 22, 1-46.

Gaulin, S.J.C. and Konner, M. (1977) On the natural diet of primates, including humans. In Nutrition and the Brain, 1, ed. R.J. Wurtman and J.J. Wurtman. New York: Raven Press.

Harding, R.S.O. and Teleki, G. (eds.)(1981) Omnivorous Primates. New York: Columbia University Press.

Harris, M. and Ross, E.B. (eds.)(1987) Food and Evolution. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

Johnston, F.E. (ed.)(1987) Nutritional Anthropology. New York: Liss.

Leonard, W.R. and Robertson, M.L. (1994) Evolutionary perspectives on human nutrition: the influence of brain and body size on diet and metabolism. American Journal of Human Biology, 6, 77-88.

Milton, K. (1993) Diet and primate evolution. Scientific American, 269(2), 70-83.

Sussman, R.W. (1978) Foraging patterns of nonhuman primates and the nature of food preferences in man. Federation Proceedings, 37, 55-60.

Widdowson, E.M. and Whiten, A. (eds.)(1991) Foraging strategies and natural diet of monkeys, apes and humans. Special issue of Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, 334, 159-295.

Almedom, A. (1991) Infant feeding in urban low-income households in Ethiopia. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 25, 97-109 & 111-121.

Almedom, A.M. (1995) Mother's morale and infant health in Ethiopia. In Human Populations: Diversity and Adaptation, ed. A.J. Boyce and V. Reynolds. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

American Journal of Human Biology, 10(2). Special issue: the ecology of breastfeeding.

Bindon, J.R. and Cabrera-Mereb, C. (1990) Infant feeding and infant health in American Samoa. American Journal of Human Biology, 2, 511-519.

Dettwyler, K.A. (1992) The biocultural approach in nutritional anthropology: case studies of malnutrition in Mali. Medical Anthropology, 15, 17-39.

Ecology of Food and Nutrition (1984) Symposium: Infant Care and Feeding in Oceania. 14.

de Garine, I. (1972) The sociocultural aspects of nutrition. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 1, 143-163.

Gray, S.J. (1995) Correlates of breast-feeding frequency among nomadic pastoralists of Turkana, Kenya. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 98, 239-255.

Gray, S.J. (1996) Ecology of weaning among nomadic Turkana pastoralists of Kenya: maternal thinking, maternal behavior, and human adaptive strategies. Human Biology, 68, 437-465.

Martens, P.J. & Young, T.K. (1997) Determinants of breastfeeding in four Ojibwa communities: a decision-making model. American Journal of Human Biology, 9, 579-593.

Neville, M.C. & Picciano, M.F. (1997) Regulation of milk lipid secretion and composition. Annual Review of Nutrition, 17, 159-184.

Panter-Brick, C. (1995) Child-care strategies in Nepal: responses to ecology, demography and society. In Human Populations: Diversity and Adaptation, ed. A.J. Boyce and V. Reynolds. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Huss-Ashmore, R. (1992) Symposium: nutrition and diet as issues in human biology. American Journal of Human Biology, 4, 155-234.

Scrimshaw, N.S. (1990) Nutrition: prospects for the 1990s. Annual Review of Public Health, 11, 53-68.

Gray, S.J. (1994) Correlates of dietary intake of lactating women in south Turkana. American Journal of Human Biology, 6, 369-383.

Lee, A.J. et al. (1995) Measuring dietary intake in remote Australian Aboriginal communities. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 34, 19-31.

Norgan, N.G. Ferro-Luzzi, A. and Durnin, J.V.G.A. (1974) The energy and nutrient intake and energy expenditure of 204 New Guinea adults. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, 268, 309-348.

Pelletier, D.L. (1987) The relationship of energy intake and expenditure to body fatness in Western Samoan men. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 19, 185-199.

Strickland, S.S. and Ulijaszek, S.J. (1994) Iban energy nutrition and shifting agriculture. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 33, 75-92.

Ulijaszek, S.J. (1992) Dietary and nutrient intakes of 25 Ningerum (New Guinea) adult males at two times of the year. American Journal of Human Biology, 4, 469-479.

Ulijaszek, S.J. (1992) Human energetics methods in biological anthropology. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 35, 215-242.

Zemel, B.S. et al. (1996) Special issue: Energetics, Lifestyles and Nutritional Adaptation. American Journal of Human Biology, 8(2).

Dewey, K.G. (1997) Energy and protein requirements during lactation. Annual Review of Nutrition, 17, 19-36.

Food and Agriculture Organisation/World Health Organisation (1973). Energy and Protein Requirements. W.H.O. Technical Reports Series, 522.

Food and Agriculture Organisation/World Health Organisation / United Nations University (1985). Energy and Protein Requirements. W.H.O. Technical Reports Series, 724. (See also W.H.O journals etc.)

Fuller, M.F. and Garlick, P.J. (1994) Human amino acid requirements: can the controversy be resolved? Annual Review of Nutrition, 14, 217-241.

Harper, A.E. (1987) Evolution of recommended dietary allowances - new directions? Annual Review of Nutrition, 7, 509-537.

Kritchevsky, D. (1988) Dietary fibre. Annual Review of Nutrition, 8, 301-328.

Rivers, J.P.W. and Payne, P.R. (1982) The comparison of energy supply and energy need: a critique of energy requirements. In Energy and Effort, ed. G.A. Harrison. London: Taylor and Francis.

Scrimshaw, N.S. and Young, V.R. (1976) The requirements of human nutrition. Scientific American, 235(3), 51-64. (Also in various Scientific American collections).

Weymes, H. (1982) The determinants of nutritional need. In Energy and Effort, ed. G.A. Harrison. London: Taylor and Francis.

Comuzzie, A.G., Blangero, J., Mahaney, M.C., Mitchell, B.D., Stern, M.P. and Maccluer, J.W. (1993) Quantitaitive genetics of sexual dimorphism in body fat measurements. American Journal of Human Biology, 5, 725-734.

Curran-Everett, L.S. (1994) Accordance between VO2 max and behavior in Ngisonyoka Turkana. American Journal of Human Biology, 6, 761-771.

Gross, D.P. (1984) Time allocation: a tool for the study of cultural behaviour. Annual Review of Anthropology, 13, 519-558.

Heymsfield, S.B. et al. (1997) Human body composition: advances in models and methods. Annual Review of Nutrition, 17, 527-558.

Himms-Hagen, J. (1985) Brown adipose tissue metabolism and thermogenesis. Annual Review of Nutrition, 5, 69-94.

Katzmarzyk, P.T., Leonard, W.R., Crawford, M.H. and Subernik, R.I. (1994) Resting metabolic rate and daily energy expenditure among two indigenous Siberian populations. American Journal of Human Biology, 6, 719-730.

Montgomery, E. and Johnson, A. (1977) Machiguenga energy expenditure. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 6, 97-105.

Norgan, N.G. Ferro-Luzzi, A. and Durnin, J.V.G.A. (1974) The energy and nutrient intake and energy expenditure of 204 New Guinea adults. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, 268, 309-348.

Norgan, N.G. (1982) Human energy stores. In Energy and Effort, ed. G.A. Harrison. London: Taylor and Francis.

Pasquet, P., Brigant, L., Froment, A., Koppert, G.A., Bard, D., de Garine, I. and Apfelbaum, M. (1992) Massive overfeeding and energy balance in men: the Guru Walla model. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 56, 483-490.

Pearson, J.D. (1990) Estimation of energy expenditure in Western Samoa, American Samoa and Honolulu by recall interviews and direct observation. American Journal of Human Biology, 2, 313-326.

Pelletier, D.L. (1987) The relationship of energy intake and expenditure to body fatness in Western Samoan men. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 19, 185-199.

Poehlman, E.T. and Horton, E.S. (1990) Regulation of energy expenditure in aging humans. Annual Review of Nutrition, 10, 255-275.

Prentice, A.M. and Prentice, A. (1988) Energy costs of lactation. Annual Review of Nutriton, 8, 63-79.

Rivers, J.P.W. and Payne, P.R. (1982) The comparison of energy supply and energy need: a critique of energy requirements. In Energy and Effort, ed. G.A. Harrison. London: Taylor and Francis.

Schoeller, D.A. and Fjeld, C.R. (1991) Human energy metabolism: what have we learnt from the doubly labelled water method? Annual Review of Nutrition, 11, 355-373.

Spurr, G.B. et al. Comparatice study of flex heart rate in Colombian children and in pregnant, lactating and non-pregnant non-lactating women. American Journal of Human Biology, 9, 647-657.

Strickland, S.S. and Ulijaszek, S.J. (1993) Resting energy expenditure and body composition in rural Sarawaki adults. American Journal of Human Biology, 5, 341-350.

Ulijaszek, S.J. (1992) Human energetics methods in biological anthropology. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 35, 215-242.

Widdowson, E.M. (1985) Responses of dietary energy. In Nutritional Adaptation in Man, ed. K.L. Blaxter and J.C. Waterlow. London: Libbey.

Woo, R., Daniels-Kush, R. and Horton, E.S. (1985) Regulation of energy balance. Annual Review of Nutrition, 5, 411-433.

McLaren, D.S. (1974) The great protein fiasco. Lancet, 1974 (2), 93-96.

Sampson, D.A. and Jansen, G.R. (1984) Protein and energy nutrition during lactation. Annual Review of Nutrition, 4, 43-67.

Waterlow, J.C. (1995) Whole-body protein turnover in humans - past present and future. Annual Review of Nutrition, 15, 57-92.

Waterlow, J.C. and Payne, P.R. (1975) The protein gap. Nature, 258, 113-117.

Gracey, M. (1980) Malnutrition. In Changing Disease Patterns and Human Behaviour, ed. N.F. Stanley and R.A. Joske. London: Academic Press.

Hebert, J.R. (1987) The social ecology of famine in British India: lessons for Africa in the 1980s? Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 20, 97-107.

Keys, A., Brozek, J., Henschel, A., Mickelson, O. and Taylor, H.L. (1950) The Biology of Human Starvation. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press

Richards, P. (1992) Famine (and war) in Africa: what do anthropologists have to say? Anthropology Today, 8(6), 3-5

Rivers, J.P.W. (1988) The nutritional biology of famine. In Famine (Biosocial Society Series, 1), ed. G.A. Harrison. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Robson, J.R.K. (ed.)(1980) Famine (Food and Nutrition in History and Anthropology, 2). New York: Gordon and Breach.

Scrimshaw, N.S. (1987) The phenomenon of famine. Annual Review of Nutrition, 7, 1-21.

Shipton, P. (1990) African famines and food security: anthropological perspectives. Annual Review of Anthropology, 19, 353-394.

Sorokin, P.A. (1975) Hunger as a Factor in Human Affairs. Gainsville: University of Florida Press.

Stein, A.D. et al. (1995) Famine, third-trimester pregnancy weight gain and intra-uterine growth: the Dutch Famine Birth Cohort Study. Human Biology, 67, 135-150.

Stein, Z., Susser, M., Suenger, G., and Marolla, F. (1975) Famine and Human Development: the Dutch Hunger Winter of 1944-45. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Swift, J. (1977) Sahelian pastoralists: underdevelopment, desertification and famine. Annual Review of Anthropology, 6, 457-478.

Walter, J. and Schofield, R. (eds.)(1989) Famine, Disease and the Social Order in Early Modern Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Whyte, S.R. and Kariuki, P.W. (1991) Malnutrition and gender relations in western Kenya. Health Transition Review, 1, 171-187.

Winick, M. (ed.)(1979) Hunger Disease: Studies by the Jewish Physicians in the Warsaw Ghetto. Wiley: New York.

Woodham-Smith, C. (1968) The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845-9. London: New English Library.

Collins, K.J. and Roberts, D.F. (eds.)(1988) Capacity for Work in the Tropics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Panter-Brick, C., Miller, D.G. (1992) Hemoglobin levels and step test performance of men and women in Nepal. American Journal of Human Biology, 4, 481-491.

Spurr, G.B. (1983) Nutritional status and work capacity. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 26, 1-35.

Spurr, G.B., Reina, J.C., Dufour, D.L. and Narváez, J.V. (1994) VO2 max and nutritional status in urban Colombian girls and women. American Journal of Human Biology, 6, 641-649.

Waterlow, J.C. (1994) Childhood malnutrition in developing nations: looking back and looking forward. Annual Review of Nutrition, 14, 1-19.

Berti, P.R. et al. (1998) Stunting in an Andean community: prevalence and etiology. American Journal of Human Biology, 10, 229-240.

Brainard, J. (1990) Nutritional status and morbidity on an irrigation project in Turkana district, Kenya. American Journal of Human Biology, 2, 153-163.

Dugdale, A., Musgrave, A., Streatfield, K. and Alsop-Shields, L. (1991) Diarrhea and growth retardation. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 25, 269-274.

Keusch, G.T. and Farthing, M.J.G. (1986) Nutrition and infection. Annual Review of Nutrition, 6, 131-154.

Latham, M.C. (1975) Nutrition and infection in national development. Science, 188, 561-565.

Morley, D.C. (1980) Nutrition and infectious disease. In Disease and Urbanization, ed. E.J. Clegg and J.P. Garlick. London: Taylor and Francis.

Roberts, D., Gracey, M. and Spargo, R.M. (1988) Growth and morbidity in children in a remote Aboriginal community in north-west Australia. Medical Journal of Australia, 148, 68-71.

Sibrian, R. and Elston, R.C. (1990) Reciprocal causal influences among malnutrition, growth retardation and diarrhea in preschool children. American Journal of Human Biology, 2, 235-243.

Barker, D.J.P., Osmond, C. and Golding, J. (1990) Height and mortality in the counties of England and Wales. Annals of Human Biology, 17, 1-6.

Bogin, B. (1991) Measurement of growth variability and environmental quality in Guatemalan children. Annals of Human Biology, 18, 285-294.

Brush, G. (1995) Growth variation and com-parative growth homeostasis. In Human Populations: Diversity and Adaptation, ed. A.J. Boyce and V. Reynolds. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Brush, G., Harrison, G.A., Baber, F.M. and Zumrawi, F.Y. (1992) Comparative variability and interval correlation in linear growth of Hong Kong and Sudanese infants. American Journal of Human Biology, 4, 291-299.

Cameron, N. (1991) Human growth, nutrition and health status in Sub-Saharan Africa. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 34, 211-250.

Dettwyler, K.A. (1991) Growth status of children in rural Mali: implications for nutrition education programs. American Journal of Human Biology, 3, 447-462.

Dettwyler, K.A. (1992) Nutritional status of adults in Mali. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 88, 309-321.

Donovan, S.M. and Odle, J. (1994) Growth factors in milk as mediators of infant development. Annual Review of Nutrition, 14, 147-67.

Fleuret, P. and Fleuret, A. (1991) Social organization, resource management and child nutrition in the Taita Hills, Kenya. American Anthropologist, 93, 91-

Gage, T.B. and Zansky, S.M. (1995) Anthropometric indicators of nutrient storage and levels of mortality. American Journal of Human Biology, 7, 679-691.

Gracey, M. and Sullivan, H. (1988) Growth of Aboriginal infants in the first year of life in remote communities in north-west Australia. Annals of Human Biology, 15, 375-382.

Harrison, G.A. (1989) Variability in stature growth. Annals of Human Biology, 16, 45-51.

Heywood, P.F. (1983) Growth and nutrition in Papua New Guinea. Journal of Human Evolution, 12, 133-143.

Himmelgreen, D.A., Dannenhoffer, R., Baht, I. and Lee, R.V. (1991) Anthropometric assessment of nutritional status among highland Kashmiri children: reevaluating the assumption of female nutritional disadvantage. American Journal of Human Biology, 3, 239-249.

Jelliffe, D.B. (1966) Assessment of the Nutritional Status of the Community (W.H.O. Monograph 53). Geneva: World Health Organization.

Jelliffe, D.B. and Jelliffe, E.F.P. (1987) Nutritional assessment in early childhood (newer perspectives). Papua New Guinea Medical Journal, 30, 91-96.

Jenkins, C.L., Orr-Ewing, A.K. and Heywood, P.F. (1984) Cultural aspects of early childhood growth and nutrition among the Amele of lowland Papua New Guinea. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 14, 261-275.

Johnston, F.E. and MacVean, R.B. (1995) Growth faltering and intra-uterine growth in relation to environmental change in children of a disadvantaged community, Guatemala City. American Journal of Human Biology, 7, 731-740.

Jones, C.O.H. and White, N.G. (1994) Adiposity in Aboriginal people from Arnhem Land, Australia: variation in degree and distribution associated with age, sex and lifestyle. Annals of Human Biology, 21, 207-227.

Kondo, M., Abe, T., Ikegawa, S., Kawakami, S., Kawakami, Y and Fukunaga, T. (1994) Upper limit of fat-free mass in humans: a study on Japanese Sumo wrestlers. American Journal of Human Biology, 6, 613-618.

Lampl, M. (ed.)(1993) Symposium: human growth patterns. American Journal of Human Biology, 5, 601-652.

Leonard, W.R., Katzmarzyk, P.T., Comuzzie, A.G., Crawford, M.H. and Subernik, R.I. (1994) Growth and nutritional status of the Evenki reindeer herders of Siberia. American Journal of Human Biology, 6, 339-350.

Li, R. et al. (1998) Timing of the influence of maternal nutritional status during pregnancy on fetal growth. American Journal of Human Biology, 10, 529-539.

Lourie, J.A., Taufa, T., Cattani, J. and Anderson, W. (1986) The Ok Tedi Health and Nutrition Project, Papua New Guinea: physique, growth and nutritional status of the Wopkaimin of the Star Mountains. Annals of Human Biology, 13, 517-536.

Martin, R.J., White, B.D. and Hulsey, M.G. (19??) The regulation of body weight. American Scientist, 79, 528- .

Martorell, R. (1985) Child growth retardation: a discussion of its causes and its relationship to health. In Nutritional Adaptation in Man, ed. K.L. Blaxter and J.C. Waterlow. London: Libbey.

Martorell, R. and Gonzalez-Cossio, T. (1987) Maternal nutrition and birth weight. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 30, 195-220.

Pollitt, E., Husaini, M.A., Harahap, H., Halati, S., Nugraheni, A. and Sherlock, A.O. (1994) Stunting and delayed motor development in rural west Java. American Journal of Human Biology, 6, 627-635.

Smith, T. (1995) What proportion of children have a growth deficit? Annals of Human Biology, 22, 3-11.

Zemel, B.S. et al. (1997) Evaluation of methodology for nutritional assessment in children: anthropometry, composition and energy expenditure. Annual Review of Nutrition, 17, 211-235.

Cernerud, L and Lindgren, G.W. (1991) Secular changes in height and weight of Stockholm schoolchildren born in 1933, 1943, 1953 and 1963. Annals of Human Biology, 18, 497-505.

Henneberg, M. and van den Berg, E.R. (1990) Test of socioeconomic causation of secular trend: stature changes among favoured and oppressed South Africans are parallel. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 83, 459-465.

Hoshi, H. and Kouchi, M. (1981) Secular trend of the age of menarche of Japanese girls with special regard to the secular acceleration of the age a peak height velocity. Human Biology, 53, 593-998.

Komlos, J., Tanner, J.M., Davies, P.S.W. and Cole, T. (1992) The growth of boys in the Stuttgart Carlschule, 1771-93. Annals of Human Biology, 19, 139-152.

Malina, R.M., Bouchard, C. and Beunen, G. (1988) Human growth: selected aspects of current research on well-nourished children. Annual Review of Anthropology, 17, 187-219.

Nicholas, S. and Steckel, R. (1990) Heights and health of workers during the early years of British industrialisation, 1770-1845. Working Paper in Economic History 142, Australian National University, Canberra.

Ostersehlt, D. and Danker-Hoppe, H. (1991) Changes in age at menarche in Germany: evidence for a continuing decline. American Journal of Human Biology, 3, 647-654.

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Ellis, J.E., Jennings, C.H. and Swift, D.M (1979) A comparison of energy flow among the grazing animals of different societies. Human Ecology, 7, 135-149.

Hett, J.M. and O'Neill, R.V. (1974) Systems analysis of the Aleut ecosystem. Arctic Anthropology, 11, 31-40.

Kumar, A. and Ramakrishnan, P.S. (1990) Energy flow through an Apatani village ecosystem of Arunachal Pradesh in northeast India. Human Ecology, 18, 315-

Little, M.A. and Morren, G.E.B. (1976) Chapter 2: Fundamentals of ecology. In Ecology, Energetics and Human Variability. Dubuque (Iowa): W.C. Brown.

Schwarcz, H.P. and Schoeninger, M.J. (1991) Stable isotope analyses in human nutritional ecology. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 34, 283-321.

Scientific American (1972) Biology and Culture in Modern Perspective. San Francisco: Freeman. Articles from later sections as appropriate.

Thomas R.B. (1976) Energy flow at high altitude. In Man in the Andes, ed. P.T. Baker and M.A. Little. Stroudsburg: Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross.

Cronk, L. (1991) Human behavioural ecology. Annual Review of Anthropology, 20, 25-53.

Hawkes, K., Kaplan, H., Hill, K. and Hurtado, A.M. (1987) Ache at the settlement: contrasts between farming and foraging. Human Ecology, 15, 133-161.

Hawkes, K., O'Connell, J.F., and Blurton Jones, N.G. (1995) Hadza children's foraging: juvenile dependency, social arrangements and mobility among hunter-gatherers. Current Anthropology, 36, 688-700.

Pate, D. (1986) The effects of drought on Ngatatjara plant use: an evaluation of optimal foraging theory. Human Ecology, 14, 95-115.

O'Connell, J.F. and Hawkes, K. (1981) Alyawarra plant use and optimal foraging theory. In Hunter-Gatherer Foraging Strategies: Ethnographic and Archaeological Analyses, ed. B. Winterhalder and E.A. Smith. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

O'Connell, J.F. and Hawkes, K. (1984) Food choice and foraging sites among the Alyawara. Journal of Anthropological Research, 40, 504-535.

Smith, E.A. (1979) Human adaptation and energetic efficiency. Human Ecology, 7, 53-74.

Smith, E.A. (1992) Human behavioural ecology. Evolutionary Anthropology, 2, 20-25, 50-55.

Smith, E.A. and Winterhalder, B. (eds.)(1992) Evolutionary Ecology and Human Behaviour (Foundations of Human Behaviour). New York: Aldine de Gruyter.

Winterhalder, B. (1993) Work, resources and population in foraging societies. Man (N.S.), 28, 321-340.

Winterhalder, B. and Smith, E.A. (eds) (1981) Hunter-Gatherer Foraging Strategies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Chapters as appropriate.

Yellen, J.E. (1986) Optimization and risk in human foraging strategies. Journal of Human Evolution, 15, 733-750.

Aunger, R. (1994) Are food avoidances adaptive in the Ituri forest of Zaire? Journal of Anthropological Research, 50, 277-

Ellen, R.F. (1978) Problems and progress in the ethnographic analysis of small scale human ecosystems. Man (N.S.), 13, 290-303.

Foin, T.C. and Davis, W.G. (1987) Equilibrium and nonequilibrium models in ecological anthropology: an evaluation of "stability" in Maring ecosystems in New Guinea. American Anthropologist, 89, 9-31.

Hames, R.B. and Vickers, W.T. (eds.)(1983) Adaptive Responses of Native Amazonians. New York: Academic Press

Harris, M. (1984) Animal capture and Yanomamo warfare: retrospect and new evidence. Journal of Anthropological Research, 40, 183-201.

Headland, T.N. (1997) Revisionism in ecological anthropology. Current Anthropology, 38, 605-630.

Katz, S.H., Hediger, M.L. and Valleroy, L.A. (1974) Traditional maize processing techniques in the New World. Science, 184, 765-773.

Little, M.A. (1989) Human biology of African pastoralists. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 32, 215-247.

Lizot, J. (1977) Population, resources and warfare among the Yanomami. Man (N.S.), 12, 497-517.

McArthur, M. (1977) Nutritional research in Melanesia: a second look at the Tsembaga. In Subsistence and Survival, ed. T.P. Bayliss-Smith and R.G. Feachem. London: Academic Press.

Moran, E.F. (1991) Human adaptive strategies in Amazonian blackwater ecosystems. American Anthropologist, 93, 361-

Orlove, B.S. (1980) Ecological anthropology. Annual Review of Anthropology, 9, 235-273.

Rappaport, R.A. (1968, new ed. 1984). Pigs for the Ancestors: Ritual in the Ecology of a New Guinea People. New Haven (Connecticut): Yale University Press.

Rappaport, R.A. (1971) Ritual regulation of environmental relations among a New Guinea people. In Environment and Cultural Behaviour, ed. A.P. Vayda. Austin: University of Texas Press. (Originally Ethnology, 6, 17-30.)

Rappaport, R. (1971) Ritual, sanctity and cybernetics. American Anthropologist, 73, 59-76.

Ross, E.B. (1978) Food taboos, diet, and hunting strategy: the adaptation to animals in Amazonian cultural ecology. Current Anthropology, 19, 1-36.

Russell-Smith, J. et al. (1997) Aboriginal resource utilization and fire management practice in western Arnhem Land, monsoonal northern Australia: notes for prehistory, lessons for the future. Human Ecology, 25, 159-

Schell, L.M. (1997) Culture as a stressor: a revised model of biocultural interaction. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 102, 67-77.

Vayda, A.P. (ed.) (1969). Environment and Cultural Behaviour. Austin: University of Texas Press.

Wiley, A.S. (1997) A role for biology in the cultural ecology of Ladakh. Human Ecology, 25, 273- .

Robert Attenborough

Second Semester 1998

Readings in this list range from the easy reading to the quite technical. For guidance as to what is most suitable in a particular case, please ask me. Readings are grouped under headings which approximately follow the sequence of the course sections.

This is not a list of what you are meant to read for the course. Rather, it is a selection from the vast range of readings available on the subject matter of the course, intended to give you a lead when you are looking for something in particular, e.g. for an essay. Browsing through the library shelves might serve the same purposes - and may still be worthwhile - but no one library area holds all the material and some of it may be on loan anyway.

No prescribed text - the reading brick is in place of one.

A.N.U. libraries: H = Hancock; M = Menzies; C = Chifley; J = John Curtin Medical; E = Earth Sciences; P = Physical Sciences.

This list is not comprehensive or guaranteed: if you find any mistakes in it, please let me know.

If you would like readings beyond what you can find using this list, please ask me.

If what you want is not available in the A.N.U. library system, one of the many other libraries in the A.C.T. may be worth trying, e.g. Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, C.S.I.R.O. Black Mountain, Department of Health, National Library of Australia.

SECOND SEMESTER, 1998

• Structure and argument. Before you start writing the text of an essay, plan it: write yourself an outline that includes an introduction, a series of main sections in which the structure of your argument will be set out in full with supporting evidence, and a conclusion. Use this to guide the writing of your actual essay, updating it if your plan needs alteration as you write. The sections may or may not have their own headings, but either way the structure should be clear to the reader: so too should the logic that links the sections into a coherent essay on the topic set.

• Use of detailed evidence. While the overall argument must not get drowned in a sea of detail, detail does have an important role. Even a perfectly true general statement may cut little ice if it lacks supporting particulars - it may seem a mere truism, may lack interest, may seem simplistic, unconvincing or even incredible. Details illustrate and clarify your point, bring your text to life, and give your argument both strength and precision. Academics aim to be sceptical, though ready to be persuaded: as we read, we keep asking ourselves why we should believe what we are reading, we look for and respond to reasoned evidence to support it. You are writing an essay, not an encyclopaedia, so of course you cannot be comprehensive in the reasoned evidence you produce. Nonetheless, by going into selected cases in sufficient detail - and further supporting that detail with references - you can do a great deal to support your overall argument.

In our subject the relevant details are often, necessarily, quantitative. It is a matter of judgement how these are best presented, clarity and concision being the aims. Small numbers of numbers can simply be incorporated in the text: but, in bulk, numbers are indigestible when presented that way. Tables, graphs etc. summarize numerical evidence concisely and precisely, and allow patterns be seen clearly, while freeing up the text to discuss the evidence instead of merely presenting it. Thus you may be able to write a better essay by accompanying it with tables/graphs as justified, and drawing the reader’s attention to what you want us to notice about this evidence. Tables/graphs reproduced directly from the source (and so acknowledged) may serve this purpose acceptably, though of course prolific use of the photocopier does not attract credit in itself. What brings most credit is where you construct the tables/graphs yourself, e.g. putting comparable data from different studies in a way which none of the original authors may have done. But the main thing is that you cite and discuss evidence in detail.

There are also a few other issues:-

• A reader can tell a lot about an essay by looking at the reference list at the back. So there should be one! And it should follow Harvard style. It should not be artificially inflated with unnecessary references or ones not cited in the text; but it should list all sources that are cited, with the standard details, and these should make it clear that you have done substantial independent library research amongst relevant scholarly sources (and not just textbooks). Special care is needed with internet site references: see the earlier handout on essay-writing. There is no target number of references: what matters is that the library research has been adequate to the requirements of the essay.

• Beware of quoting overmuch: I want to read it in your own words. Any quotations should be for special reason and should be supported by Harvard-style references including page number.

And a number of points about English sentence construction to pick up in proof-reading:-

• Clauses, subjects and verbs. Most English sentences, probably all in an academic essay, should have at least one main clause containing a subject and a verb. They may also have one or more subordinate clauses (e.g. one linked to the main clause by "although", "whereas", "while"). A subordinate clause on its own does not make a coherent sentence: nor does a phrase in which the only verb is in participle form ("-ing", "-ed").

• Agreement between subject and verb. Native speakers know intuitively that "we am" or "we is" would be incorrect, whereas "we are" would be correct. Failures of subject and verb to agree, e.g. as to number ("HIV and AIDS in Africa is an excellent example …") are nonetheless common. A subject may be of the form "X and Y", may be non-English, and/or may not be the nearest noun.

• Words of non-English origin. Some of these still follow the singular/plural pattern of the original language: e.g. datum/data, bacterium/bacteria, medium/media, formula/formulae, criterion/criteria, phenomenon/phenomena, hypothesis/hypotheses, index/indices. Genus and species names are written thus: Homo sapiens. (N.B. Homo sapiens is singular: there is no such word as ‘sapien’!).

• An apostrophe generally marks either a possessive ("a woman’s child") or a colloquial contraction, e.g. of "is" ("a woman’s walking along the street"). In either case, the apostrophe is not optional. "It" presents an exception: there is no apostrophe in the possessive "its". "It’s" means "it is" or possibly "it has" - not "belonging to it". Simple plurals ("persons", "countries", "perspectives", even "1960s") do not need and should not have apostrophes. In possessives of standard plurals, the apostrophe follows the -s (e.g. "the families’ economic situation"). Some words have non-standard plurals which do not end in -s, and the apostrophe then precedes the -s ("women’s economic situation").

• Commas are often best deployed in pairs to indicate pauses and cadences, and hence the meaning of a sentence. A sentence several lines long can be very hard to read for its sense unless it is appropriately punctuated. On the other hand, commas should not intrude where there is no natural pause in the sentence, nor between subject and verb, unless used in pairs to mark off e.g. an adverbial phrase.

• Many words have differently spelt homophones or near-homophones with different meanings. I have built up a fine collection over this year’s courses, including: principal/principle, to/too, currant/current, were/where, their/there, affect/effect, recent/resent, wonder/wander, weight/wait, discrete/discreet, cause/course, cite/site, prescribe/proscribe, flaw/floor, lessen/lesson, role/roll. When a word you have written is a real word but not the one you mean, spell-checkers cannot help.

• There is a distinction between things that vary on a continuous scale, like water, of which there is an amount, and things that come in discrete units, like children, of which there is a number.

• Care is needed over "however". "This view, however, fails to take account of …" is an example of good usage: "however" is placed mid-clause and is bracketed with commas. "However" is not the right word to link two clauses whose sense is opposed: you probably want "but" in that case.