Syllabus: This unit explores our understanding of variability in archaeological assemblages. Evidence from a number of time periods is described and suggested explanations for assemblage variability are evaluated. Case studies include archaeological variation in the Middle Palaeolithic in Europe, and the mid-Holocene technology of Australia. Alternative explanations of the complex variations in the archaeological record are examined.

Prerequisite: Introduction to Archaeology (PREH1111) and/or From Origins to Civilisations (PREH1112). Students without one of these units should consult the lecturer.

Hyperlinks on this page will enable you to view a number of published articles and web presentations. Many of these are in html format and can be viewed with any web browser. Some of the hyperlinks reveal publications in Adobe Acrobat (.pdf) format, and to view those you will need to download a free Acrobat reader if you don't already have one. [Download a free .pdf reader].

Debenath, A. and H.L.Dibble 1994 Handbook of Paleolithic Typology. Volume One. Lower and Middle Paleolithic of Europe. University Museum, University of Pennsylvania.

(You really will need to spend a lot of time looking at this book to do the essay. Therefore it would be desirable if you obtained a copy. Unfortunately its not cheap. Purchase if possible or use the photocopy in the library. It is available through Amazon.com for US$60.)

Note: Please spell Palaeolithic with a second 'a' - Dibble's spelling is used only by researchers in the United States.

Dibble, H.L., S.P.McPherron, B.J.Roth 2000 Virtual Dig : A Simulated Archaeological Excavation of a Middle Paleolithic Site in France, Mayfield Publishing Company.

(This is a book and a cd. If you are tired of reading stodgy archaeology books try this - a well-written interactive cd that lets you excavate and analyse artefacts from Comb-Capelle. A good introduction to Palaeolithic archaeology, even if it starts a little bit basic for you. It is available through Amazon.com for US$29.95, and through the ANU Co-operative Bookshop. While purchasing the cd is not essential for the unit, since you will have access to the cd for a short time during our labs, you might want to get a copy to work through the entire virtual experience.)

Introduction

Crabtree, D.E. 1972 An introduction to flintworking. Occasional Papers of the Idaho State University Museum, No.28.

Hiscock, P. and S. Mitchell 1993 Stone artefact quarries and reduction sites in Australia: Towards a type profile. Australian Heritage Commission. Australian Government Publishing Service. Particularly chapter 2 (pp. 5-17).

Flenniken, J. J., and J. P. White 1985 Australian flaked stone tools: a technological perspective. Records of the Australian Museum 36: 131-151.

History

Johnson, L.L. 1978 A history of flint-knapping experimentation, 1838-1976. Current Anthropology 19(2): 337-372.

Hiscock, P. 1998 Revitalising artefact analysis. In T. Murray (ed) Archaeology of Aboriginal Australia. Pp.257-265. Sydney, Unwin and Allen.

Holmes, W.H. 1919 Handbook of Aboriginal American Antiquities, Part I, Introductory, The Lithic Industries. Bulletin of American Ethnology 60. Washington DC, US Government Printer.

Skertchly, S.B.J. 1879 On the manufacture of gun-flints. Memoir of the British Geological Survey.

Wright, R.V.S. (Ed) 1977 Stone tools as cultural markers: change, evolution and complexity. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, Canberra.

Classification

Hills and Evans 1972 A model for classification and typology. In D.L.Clarke (ed.) Models in Archaeology. Pp.231-274. London: Methuen.

McCarthy, F.D. 1967 Australian Aboriginal Stone implements. Australian Museum, Sydney.

Recent

Leonard, R.D, and Jones, G.T. (ed.) 1989 Quantifying diversity in archaeology, Cambridge University Press.

Odell, G.H. (ed.) 1996 Stone tools, theoretical insights into human prehistory, Plenum Press.

Andrefsky, W. 1998 Lithics : Macroscopic Approaches to Analysis Cambridge University Press.

Excellent library resources are available. At ANU try the ANU libraries (particularly the Chifley and Menzies buildings). And of course the National Library of Australia is very useful. However, for Australian material nothing rivals the library of the: Australian Institute of Aboriginal And Torres Strait Islander Studies. There is no borrowing from this library, which means every reference you look for will be available. AIATSIS library is on the foreshore of Lake Burley Griffen within easy walking distance of ANU (Acton House, Marcus Clarke Street, Acton). Opening hours are: 9 am to 5 pm weekdays except Tuesdays. Before you go off to the AIATSIS library you can now browse Mura, the on-line catalogue of AIATSIS to see if the material you are seeking is available there.

It is also possible to access electronic versions of relevant journals over the web through the electronic journals area of the ANU library web site. To do this you must have approved student access to the system.

A number of journals regularly publish articles on assemblage variation. These journals can be very useful to browse. The following list includes journals worth looking through in your research:

In the A.D.Hope Building the Department of Archaeology and Anthropology have a number of displays of artefacts relevant to this unit. To the left of the entrance to the Gordon Childe Room is a display of European Palaeolithic artefacts and in the main corridor is a display of Australian implement types.

This unit runs for one semester and in most weeks consist of three contact hours each week. Due to the unusual organisation of the semester structure this year the formal lectures will be completed in the first nine weeks (ie. before the mid-semester break).

Proposed assessment will involve one component: an essay worth 100%

Extensions for the essay will only be given on the provision of a medical certificate. In that event you must consult with the unit controller for an extended deadline. Requests for extensions for non-medical reasons will be granted only in exceptional circumstances. Pressure of other work or unavailability of texts will not be accepted as legitimate grounds for extension. Do not leave your preparation until the last moment - START EARLY!

If you are unable to meet a set deadline consult with the unit controller before the expiry of the deadline. No penalties are placed on late work; but late work will not be accepted unless an extension has been approved.

For your own sake make sure your essay conforms to the guidelines for essays in archaeology (click for information).

The essay is due on the 1st November. No minimum or maximum word length is prescribed, but an essay about 3-4,000 words would be appropriate. The essay topic is as follows:

For further discussion on the essay contact Dr Hiscock (email: peter.hiscock@anu.edu.au).

Binford, L.R. 1973 Interassemblage variability - the Mousterian and the ‘functional’ argument. Pp.227-254. in C.Renfrew (ed.) The Explanation of Culture Change. Surrey: Duckworth.

Bordes, F. and de Sonneville-Bordes, D., 1970. The significance of variability in Paleolithic assemblages. World Archaeology 2(1): 61-73.

Bordes, F., 1961. Mousterian cultures in France. Science 134: 803-810.

Bordes, F., 1972. A tale of two caves. Harper and Row: New York.

Bordes, F., 1973. On the chronology and contemporaneity of different palaeolithic cultures in France. Pp.217-226 in C. Renfrew (ed.) The exploration of culture change. Duckworth.

Debenath, A. and H.L.Dibble 1994 Handbook of Paleolithic Typology. Volume One. Lower and Middle Paleolithic of Europe. University Museum, University of Pennsylvania.

Dibble, H.L. 1984 Interpreting typological variation of Middle Paleolithic scrapers: function, style, or sequence of reduction? Journal of Field Archaeology 11: 431-436. [Download .pdf courtesy of H.L.Dibble]

Dibble, H.L. 1987 The interpretation of Middle Paleolithic scraper morphology. American Antiquity 52(1): 109-117. [Download .pdf courtesy of H.L.Dibble]

Dibble, H.L. 1995 Middle Paleolithic scraper reduction: background, clarification, and review of evidence to date. Journal of Archaeological method and theory 2(4): 299-368. [Download .pdf courtesy of H.L.Dibble]

Gordon, D. 1993 Mousterian tool selection, reduction, and discard at Ghar, Israel. Journal of Field Archaeology. 20(2): 205-218.

Kuhn, S.L. 1995 Mousterian Lithic Technology. Princeton University Press.

Mellars, P. 1996 The Neanderthal Legacy. Princeton University Press.

Rolland, N. and H.L.Dibble 1990 A new synthesis of Middle Paleolithic assemblage variability. American Antiquity 55(3): 480-499. [Download .pdf courtesy of H.L.Dibble]

Sackett, J.R. 1973 Style, function, and artefact variability in Palaeolithic assemblages. Pp.317-328. in C.Renfrew (ed.) The explanation of culture change. Surrey: Duckworth.

Clegg, J.K. 1977 The four dimensions of artificial variation. Pp.60-66 in R.V.S.Wright (ed.) Stone Tools as Cultural Markers: Change, Evolution and Complexity. Sydney: Humanities Press.

Close, A.E. 1978 The identification of style in lithic artefacts. World Archaeology 10:223-237.

Isaac, G.L. 1972 Early phases of human behaviour: models in Lower Palaeolithic archaeology. Pp.167-200. in D.L.Clarke (ed.) Models in Archaeology. London: Methuen.

Jelinek, A.J. 1976 Form, function and style in lithic analysis. Pp.19-33. in C.B.Cleland (ed.) Cultural change and continuity: essays in honor of J.G.Griffin. New York: Academic Press.

McBryde, I. 1977 Determinants of assemblage variation in New England prehistory. In R.V.S.Wright (ed.) Stone Tools as Cultural Markers: Change, Evolution and Complexity. Pp.225-250. Sydney: Humanities Press.

Sackett, J.R. 1973 Style, function, and artefact variability in Palaeolithic assemblages. Pp.317-328. in C.Renfrew (ed.) The explanation of culture change. Surrey: Duckworth.

Sackett, J.R. 1977 The meaning of style in archaeology: a general model. American Antiquity 42(3): 369-380.

Sackett, J.R. 1982 Approaches to style in lithic archaeology. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 1(1): 59-112.

Wilmsen, E. 1970 Lithic Analysis and cultural inference: a Paleo-indian Case. Anthropological Papers 16. University of Arizona.

Bamforth, D.B. 1988 Investigating microwear Polishes with blind tests: the Institute results in context. Journal of Archaeological Science 15:11-23

Crabtree, D.E. 1973 The obtuse angle as a functional edge. Tebiwa 16(2): 46-53.

Fergusson, W.C. 1980 Edge-angle classification of the Quininup Brook implements: testing the ethnographic analogy. Archaeology and Physical Anthropology in Oceania 15(1): 56-72.

Hayden, B. (ed.). 1979 Lithic use-wear analysis. Academic Press.

Hiscock, P. 1982 The real meaning of edge angles? Australian Archaeology 14: 79-85.

Kamminga,J. 1977 A functional study of an Australian tool type: The elouera. Pp.205-212 in R.V.S.Wright (Ed) Stone tools as cultural markers: Change, evolution and complexity, AIAS

Kamminga,J. 1980 A functional investigation of Australian microliths. The Artefact 5: 1-18.

Kamminga,J. 1981 The bevelled pounder: an Aboriginal stone tool type from south-east Queensland, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland. 92: 31-35

Kamminga, J. 1982. Over the edge. Functional Analysis of Australian Stone Tools. Occasional Papers in Anthropology 11.

Keeley, L.H. 1980 Experimental determination of stone tool uses. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Owen, L.R. and G.Unrath (ed.). 1986 Technical aspects of microwear studies on stone tools. Early man News Vols. 9, 10, 11, Parts I and II.

Vaughn, P.C. 1985 Use-wear analysis of flaked tools. University of Arizona Press.

Gould, S. J. and R. C. Lewontin The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: a critique of the Adaptationist programme.

Hull, D. 1978 A matter of individuality. Philosophy of Science 45:335-360.

Kitts, D.B. and D.J. Kitts 1979 Biological species as natural kinds. Philosophy of Science 46:613-622.

Mayr, E. 1981 Biological classification: towards a synthesis of opposing methodologies. Science 214:510-516.

Adams, W.Y. 1988 Archaeological classification: theory versus practice. Antiquity 61:40-56.

Brown, J. A. 1982 On the structure of artifact typologies. In Whallon, R. and J.A.Brown (ed.). 1982 Essays on archaeological typology. Pp. 176-190. Evanston: Center for American Archaeology Press.

Clarke, D. L. 1968 Analytical archaeology. London: Methuen.

Spaulding, A.C. 1953 Statistical techniques for the discovery of artifact types. American Antiquity 18(4):305-313.

Rouse, I. 1960 The classification of artifacts in archaeology. American Antiquity 25(3): 313-323.

Aldenderfer, M. S. and R. K. Blashfield 1978 Cluster analysis and archaeological classification. American Antiquity 43(3):502-506.

Dunnell, R.C. 1986 Methodological issues in Americanist artifact classification. Advances in archaeological method and theory 9:149-207.

Fish, P. R. 1978 Consistency in archaeological measurement and classification: a pilot study. American Antiquity 43(1):86-89.

Aterian Point (North Africa)

Adams, W. Y. and E.W.Adams 1991 Archaeological typology and practical reality. Cambridge University Press.

Bordes, F. and de Sonneville-Bordes, D., 1970. The significance of variability in Paleolithic assemblages. World Archaeology 2(1): 61-73.

Brew, J.O. 1946 Archaeology of Alkali Ridge, southeast Utah. Cambridge: Harvard University Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology 21.

Collins, D. 1969 Culture traditions and environment of early Man. Current Anthropology 10(4): 267-316.

Collins, D. 1970 Stone artefact analysis and the recognition of culture traditions. World Archaeology 2: 17-27.

Ford, J.A. 1954 The type concept revisited. American Anthropologist 56(1): 42-54.

Klejn, L. S. 1982 Archaeological typology. Oxford: British Archaeological reports International series 153.

Krieger, A. D. 1944 The typological concept. American Antiquity 9(3):271-88.

Smith, R.E., G. R. Willey, and J.C.Gifford 1960 The type-variety concept as a basis for the analysis of Maya pottery. American Antiquity 25(3):330-340.

Spaulding, A.C. 1953 Statistical techniques for the discovery of artifact types. American Antiquity 18(4):305-313.

Steward, J.H. 1954 Types of types. American Anthropologist 56: 54-57.

Whallon, R. and J.A.Brown (ed.). 1982 Essays on archaeological typology. Evanston: Center for American Archaeology Press.

White,J.P. and D.H.Thomas 1972 What mean these stones? Ethnotaxonomic models and archaeological interpretations in the New Guinea Highlands. Pp.275-308 in D.L.Clarke (ed) Models in Archaeology, Methuen, London

Binford, L.R. 1973 Interassemblage variability - the Mousterian and the ‘functional’ argument. Pp.227-254. in C.Renfrew (ed.) The Explanation of Culture Change. Surrey: Duckworth.

Bordes, F., 1961. Mousterian cultures in France. Science 134: 803-810.

Bordes, F., 1972. A tale of two caves. Harper and Row: New York.

Bordes, F., 1973. On the chronology and contemporaneity of different palaeolithic cultures in France. Pp.217-226 in C. Renfrew (ed.) The exploration of culture change. Duckworth.

Justice, N.D. 1988 Stone age spear and arrow Points of the Midcontinental and eastern United States. Indiana University Press.

Mellars, P. 1989 Major issues in the emergence of modern humans, Current Anthropology 30(2): 349-385.

Otte, M. 1990. From the Middle to the Upper Palaeolithic: the nature of the transition. Pp.438-456 in P. Mellars (ed.) The emergence of modern humans. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Thomas, D.H. 1986 Points on points: a reply to Flenniken and Raymond. American Antiquity 51(3): 619-627.

Brockwell, S. 1996 Open sites of the South Alligator River Wetland, Kakadu. Pp. 90-105 in P.Veth and P.Hiscock (eds) Archaeology of northern Australia. Tempus 4, Anthropology Museum, University of Queensland.

Cane, S.B. 1988 Written on stone: a discussion on ethnographic and Aboriginal perspection of stone tools. Pp.88-93 in B. Meehan and R. Jones (ed) Archaeology with ethnography: an Australian Perspective. Department of Prehistory, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University.

Cane, S. 1992 Aboriginal perceptions of their stone tool technology: a case study from the Western Desert, Australia. Australian Archaeology 35: 11-31.

Clegg, J.K. 1977 The four dimensions of artificial variation. Pp.60-66 in R.V.S.Wright (ed.) Stone Tools as Cultural Markers: Change, Evolution and Complexity. Sydney: Humanities Press.

Hiscock, P. 1983 Stone Tools as cultural markers? The last two decades of Australian stone artefact analysis. Australian Archaeology 16: 48-56.

Hiscock, P. 1998 Revitalising artefact analysis. In T. Murray (ed.) Archaeology of Aboriginal Australia, pp.257-265. Sydney: Unwin and Allen.

Hiscock, P. and H. Allen in press Assemblage variability in the Willandra Lakes. Archaeology in Oceania.

White, J.P. 1977 Crude, colourless and Unenterprising? Prehistorians and their views on the Stone Age of Sunda and Sahul. Pp.13-30 in J, Allen, J.Golson and R.Jones (eds) Sunda and Sahul: Prehistoric studies in Southeast Asia, Melanesia and Australia. London: Academic Press.

White, J. P. 1967 Ethno-archaeology in New Guinea: two examples, Mankind 6: 409-414.

White, J. P. 1969 Typologies for some prehistoric flaked stone artefacts of the Australian New Guinea highlands, Archaeology and Physical Archaeology in Oceania 4: 18-46.

Australian Implements (http://artalpha.anu.edu.au/web/arc/resources/paa/arcrock.htm)

Akerman, K. 1993 The status of the Horsehoof core. Records of the Australian Museum Supplement 17: 125-127.

Dickson, F. 1981 Australian Stone Hatchets: a study in Design and Dynamics. Academic Press.

Etheridge, R. 1891 Notes on Australian Aboriginal stone weapons and implements, Proceedings of the Linnean Society of NSW 6(1): 31-48, 6(3): 357-88, 699-704

Etheridge, R. and T. Whitelegge 1907 Aboriginal workshops on the coast of New South Wales, and their contents, Records of the Australian Museum 6(4): 233-250.

Flenniken, J. J., and J. P. White 1985 Australian flaked stone tools: a technological perspective. Records of the Australian Museum 36: 131-151.

Hayden, B. 1977 Stone tool functions in the Western Desert. In R. V. S. Wright (ed.) Stone Tools as Cultural Markers: Change, Evolution and Complexity. Pp.178-188. Sydney: Humanities Press.

Hiscock, P. 1986 Technological change in the Hunter River Valley and the interpretation of Late Holocene change in Australia. Archaeology in Oceania 21(1): 40-50.

Hiscock, P. 1993 Bondaian technology in the Hunter Valley, New South Wales. Archaeology in Oceania 28(2): 64-75.

Hiscock, P. and V. Attenbrow 1996 Backed into a corner. Australian Archaeology 42: 64-65.

Howchin, W. 1934 The stone implements of the Adelaide tribe of Aborigines now extinct. Gillingham.

Kamminga, J. 1985 The Pirri Graver. Australian Aboriginal Studies 2: 2-25.

Kenyon, A.S. 1927 Stone implements on Aboriginal camping grounds, Victorian Naturalist 43: 280-285

Kenyon, A. S. and Stirling, D. L. 1900 Australian Aboriginal stone implements. A suggested classification. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 13: 191-197.

Lorblanchet, M., and R. Jones 1979 Les premieres fouilles a Dampier (Australie occidentale), et leur place dans l'ensembl australien. Bulletin de la Societe Prehistorique Francaise 76: 463-487.

McCarthy, F.D. 1949 The prehistoric cultures of Australia. Oceania 19: 305-19.

McCarthy, F.D. 1958 Culture succession in south eastern Australia. Mankind 5: 177-190

McCarthy, F.D. 1967 Australian Aboriginal Stone implements. Australian Museum, Sydney.

Mitchell, S. R. 1949 Stone Age Craftsmen: stone tools and camping places of the Australian Aborigines. Melbourne: Tait Book Company.

Morwood, M. J. 1981 Archaeology of the Central Queensland Highlands: the stone component. Archaeology in Oceania 16(1): 1-52.

Mulvaney, D. J. 1977 Classification and typology in Australia: The first 340 years. Pp.263-268 in R. V. S. Wright (Ed) Stone tools as cultural markers: Changes, evolution and complexity. Humanities Press.

Mulvaney, D. J., and Joyce, E.B. 1965. Archaeological and geomorphological investigations on Mt. Moffatt Station, Queensland, Australia. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 31: 147-212.

Mulvaney, D.J. and J.Kamminga 1999 Prehistory of Australia. Unwin and Allen.

Noetling, F. 1907 Notes on the Tasmanian Amorpholithes, Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania 1907: 1-37.

O’Connell, J.F. 1977 Aspects of variation in central Australian lithic assemblages. Pp.269-281 in R.V.S. Wright (ed.) Stone tools as cultural markers: change, evolution and complexity. Sydney: Humanities Press.

Smith, M.A. 1985 A morphological comparison of central Australian seedgrinding implements and Australian Pleistocene-age grindstones. The Beagle 2(1): 23-38.

Tindale, N. B. 1968 Nomenclature of archaeological cultures and associated implements in Australia. Records of the South Australian Museum 15: 615-40

Towle, C. C. 1930 Certain Stone Implements of the scraper family found along the coast of New South Wales. Eastwood Press

Towle, C. C. 1934 Stone scrapers: an inquiry concerning a certain conventionalized type found along the cost of New South Wales. Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales 68(2): 117-143.

Cooper, H. M. 1954 Material culture of Australian Aborigines Part 1. Progressive modification of a stone artefact. Records of the South Australian Museum 11:91-7.

Cundy, B.J. 1985 The secondary use and reduction of cylindro-conical stone artifacts from the Northern Territory. The Beagle 2(1): 115-127.

Gordon, D. 1993 Mousterian tool selection, reduction, and discard at Ghar, Israel. Journal of Field Archaeology. 20(2): 205-218.

Hiscock, P. 1993 Bondaian technology in the Hunter Valley, New South Wales. Archaeology in Oceania 28(2): 64-75.

Hiscock, P. 1994 The end of points. In M. Sullivan, S. Brockwell and A. Webb (eds) Archaeology in the North. Pp.72-83. NARU, Australian National University.

Hiscock, P. 1996 Transformations of Upper Palaeolithic implements in the Dabba industry from Haua Fteah (Libya). Antiquity 70: 657-664.

McNiven, I., and P. Hiscock 1988 Small unifacial pebble cores from Fraser Island, Southeast Queensland. Queensland Archaeological Research 5: 161-165.

Hiscock, P., and P. Veth 1991 Change in the Australian Desert Culture: a reanalysis of tulas from Puntutjarpa. World Archaeology 22(3): 332-345.

Neeley, M.P. and C.M. Barton 1994. A new approach to interpreting late Pleistocene microlith industries in southwest Asia. Antiquity 68: 275-288.

Wheat, J.B. 1976 Artifact life histories: cultural templates, typology, evidence and inference. Pp.7-15 in J.S. Raymond, B. Loveseth, C. Arnold, and C. Reardon (eds) Primitive Art and Technology. University of Calgary.

Casteel, R.W. 1974. On the number and sizes of animals in archaeological faunal assemblages. Archaeometry 16,238-243.

Gorecki, P., M.Grant, S.O'Connor and P.Veth 1997 The morphology, function and antiquity of Australian grinding implements. Archaeology in Oceania 32:141-150.

Grayson, D.K. 1978. Minimum Numbers and Sample Size in Vertebrate Faunal Analysis. American Antiquity 43,53-65.

Grayson, D.K. 1981. The effects of sample size on some derived measures in vertebrate faunal analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 8,77-88.

Grayson, D.K. 1984. Quantitative Zooarchaeology: Topics in the Analysis of Archaeological Faunas. Academic Press.

Grayson, D.K. and S.C.Cole 1998. Stone tool assemblage richness during the Middle and Early Upper Palaeolithic in FranceJournal of Archaeological Science. 25:927-938. [Download .pdf]

Hiscock, P. 1993. The distribution of points within Nauwalabila 1. The Beagle 10, 173-178.

Kintigh, K.W. 1984. Measuring archaeological diversity by comparison with simulated assemblages. American Antiquity 49,44-54.

Kintigh, K.W. 1989. Sample size, significance, and measures of diversity. In R.D.Leonard and G.T.Jones (eds) Quantifying diversity in archaeology, pp.25-36. Cambridge University Press.

Thomas, D.H. 1989. Diversity in hunter-gatherer cultural geography. In R.D.Leonard and G.T.Jones (eds), Quantifying diversity in archaeology, Pp.85-91. Cambridge University Press.

Clarke, J.D. 1958 The natural fracture of pebbles from the Bakota Gorge, Northern Rhodesia, and its bearing on the Kafuan Industries of Africa. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 24: 64-77.

Howchin, W. 1921 On the occurrence of Aboriginal Stone Implements of Unusual Types in the Tableland Regions of Central Australia. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 45: 206-230.

Howchin, W. 1933 A rejoinder to some recent Ethnological Papers. Records of the South Australian Museum 5(1): 1-11.

Oakley, K.P. 1952 Man the tool-maker. London: British Museum.

Oakley, K.P. 1969 Man, the skilled Tool-maker. Antiquity 43: 222-224.

Tindale, N. B. 1932 Notes on the supposed primitive stone implements from the tablelands regions of Central Australia. Records of the South Australian Museum 4(4): 483-488.

Toth, N. 1985 The Oldowan reassessed: a closer look at early stone artefacts. Journal of Archaeological Science 12: 101-120

Wright, R. V. S. 1972 Imitative learning of a flake stone technology: the case of an orangutan. Mankind 8: 296-306

Hall, J. and W. Love 1985 Prickly Bush, a site with backed blades on the Brisbane River: a pilot study towards the measurement of site "disturbance". Queensland Archaeological Research 2: 71-81.

Hiscock, P. 1990 A study in scarlet: the taphonomy of inorganic artefacts. Pp.34-49 in S. Solomon, I. Davidson, and D. Watson (Eds) Problem solving in Taphonomy: studies related to the Archaeology of Europe, Africa and Oceania. Tempus monograph 2, University of Queensland.

Mallouf, R.J. 1982 An analysis of plow-damaged chert artifacts: the Brookeen Creek cache (41HI86), Hill County, Texas. Journal of Field Archaeology 9(1): 79-98.

Purdy, B.A. and D.E. Clark 1979 Weathering of thermally altered prehistoric stone implements. Lithic Technology 8(2): 20-21.

Andrefsky, W. 1998 Lithics : Macroscopic Approaches to Analysis. Cambridge University Press.

Fladmark, K.R. 1982 Microdebitage analysis: initial considerations Journal of Archaeological Science 9: 205-220.

Hiscock, P. 1984 Preliminary report on the stone artefacts from Colless Creek Cave, northwest Queensland. Queensland Archaeological Research 1: 120-151.

Newcomer, M. H. 1975 `Punch technique' and Upper Palaeolithic blades. Pp.97-102 in E.H.Swanson (ed.) Lithic Technology. Chicago: Mouton.

Noetling,F. 1911 Notes on the marks of percussion on Siliceous rocks Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania, 1911: 1-20.

Sullivan, A. P. and K. C. Rozen 1985 Debitage analysis and archaeological interpretation. American Antiquity 50:755-779.

Fracture mechanics (http://artalpha.anu.edu.au/web/arc/resources/intro/intro.htm )

Cotterell, B., and J. Kamminga 1979 The mechanics of flaking. Pp.97-112 in B.Hayden (ed.) Lithic use-wear analysis. New York: Academic Press.

Cotterell, B., J. Kamminga and F.P. Dickson 1985 The essential mechanics of conchoidal flaking. International Journal of Fracture 29: 205-221.

Crabtree, D.E. 1967a Notes on experiments in flintknapping: the flintknapper's raw materials. Tebiwa 10(1): 3-25.

Crabtree, D.E. 1967b Notes on experiments in flintknapping: 4. tools used for making flaked stone artifacts. Tebiwa 10(1): 60-73.

Crabtree, D.E. 1972 The cone fracture principle and the manufacture of lithic materials. Tebiwa 15(2): 29-42.

Crabtree, D.E. 1974 Grinding and smoothing of stone artifacts. Tebiwa 17(1): 1-6.

Dibble, H.L. and A. Pelcin 1995 The effect of hammer mass and velocity on flake mass. Journal of Archaeological Science. 22:429-439. [Download .pdf courtesy of H.L.Dibble]

Lawn, B.R., and D.B.Marshall 1979 Mechanisms of microcontact fracture in brittle solids. Pp.63-82 in B.Hayden (ed.) Lithic use-wear analysis. New York: Academic Press.

Pelcin, A. 1997a The effect of indentor type on flake attributes: evidence from a controlled experiment. Journal of Archaeological Science 24:613-621.

Pelcin, A. 1997b The formation of flakes: the role of platform thickness and exterior platform angle in the production of flake initiations and terminations. Journal of Archaeological Science 24:1107-1113.

Speth, J.D. 1972 Mechanical basis for percussion flaking. American Antiquity 37(1): 34-60.

Speth, J.D. 1974 Experimental investigations of hard-hammer percussion flaking. Tebiwa 17(1): 7-36.

Speth, J.D. 1975 Studies in hard-hammer percussion flaking: the effect of oblique impact. American Antiquity 40: 203-207.

Tsirk, A. 1979 Regarding fracture initiations. Pp.83-96 in B.Hayden (ed.) Lithic Use-Wear Analysis. New York: Academic Press.

Crabtree, D.E., and B.R. Butler 1964 Notes on experiments in flintknapping: 1. heat treatment of silica minerals. Tebiwa 7(1): 1-7.

Domanski, M., Webb, J.A. and J. Boland 1994 Mechanical properties of stone artefact materials and the effects of heat treatment. Archaeometry 36(2):177-209.

Domanski, M. and J.A. Webb 1992 Effects of heat treatment on silicious rock used in prehistoric lithic technololgy. Journal of Archaeological Science 19(6)601-614.

Flenniken, J.J., and J.P.White 1983 Heat treatment of siliceous rocks and its implications for Australian prehistory. Australian Aboriginal Studies 1: 43-48.

Mandeville, M. 1973 A consideration of thermal pretreatment of chert. Plains Anthropologist 18: 177-202.

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Author: Peter Hiscock, Dept. Archaeology and Anthropology
Feedback: peter.hiscock@anu.edu.au .
Date Last Modified: 17-May-2000
URL: http://artalpha.anu.edu.au/web/arc/resources/papers/courses/002036.htm